Children's perceptions of friendships as supportive relationships.

Assessed 122 2nd, 4th, 6th, and 8th graders' perceptions of the social support provided by friends. During individual interviews, Ss were asked about the frequency of emotional support or intimate self-disclosure, tangible support or prosocial behavior, and other types of support provided by a particular friend. Ss were also asked about the frequency of conflicts with the friend and the frequency of supportive interactions and conflicts with a classmate who was only an acquaintance. Factor analyses revealed an increase with grade in the differentiation between the support and conflict dimensions of friendship and acquaintanceship. At all grades, Ss perceived friends as more supportive than acquaintances, but explanations for the lack of support from acquaintances changed with grade. Sixth graders often gave personal attributions (e.g., saying that the acquaintances were selfish or hostile). Eighth graders favored more situational attributions (e.g., saying that they had few supportive interactions with acquaintances because they rarely came in contact with them). The potential value of perceived-support measures in research on the consequences of friendship is discussed. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The relation between lexical marking and rating extremity in interpersonal judgment.

Results of 2 experiments with undergraduates (N = 35) support the following hypotheses: (a) Ss judge acquaintances more extremely on the "marked" (e.g., weak) than on the "unmarked" (e.g., strong) poles of dichotomous constructs represented by pairs of antonymous adjectives. (b) Ss use the unmarked poles of such constructs to describe their acquaintances more often than they use their marked opposites. (c) The greater the relative frequency with which an S uses the unmarked pole of a particular construct to characterize his acquaintances, the more useful he regards that construct for describing persons and the more extremely he rates his acquaintances on it. (French summary) (24 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A brief encounter group experience and social relationships in a dormitory.

Examined the effects of a brief encounter group experience upon 500 residents in a university dormitory. Women living on 3 separate floors were designated experimental Ss and provided with a group experience designed to encourage personal interaction, while women on 2 other floors were assigned to a control group. 6 preexperimental and follow-up measures (e.g., semantic differential ratings of floor atmosphere, a modified Self-Disclosure Questionnaire, and frequency of conversations with peers) administered to both groups showed that experimental Ss evidenced greater improvement in their attitudes toward the importance of "floor spirit" in their ratings of the social atmosphere of their floor and in the number of peers they subsequently identified as acquaintances. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perception des raisons de la pauvreté par des Montréalais canadiens-fran?ais.

Gave a French version of J. R. Feagin's (1972) questionnaire on explanations for poverty (individual, structural, or fatalistic) to groups of Ss in Montreal. Results show that Montreal Ss attributed more importance to structural than to individual explanations (i.e., blamed poverty on the social system rather than on the poor themselves). Demographic variables (e.g., age) associated with the Ss did not appear to influence the results. (7 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Assessment of overt behavior and childhood depression among psychiatrically disturbed children.

Examined the relation of direct observations of overt behavior to depression among 62 child psychiatric inpatients (aged 8–13 yrs). Childhood depression was assessed by self-report and interview measures administered separately to Ss and their mothers. DSM-III diagnoses were also obtained from direct interviews and were supplemented with clinical information. Direct observations of Ss were obtained during free-time periods over several days. Multiple behaviors were observed and coded into 1 of 3 categories: social activity (e.g., talking with others and playing games), solitary behavior (e.g., working alone on a task and playing alone), and affect-related expression (e.g., smiling and frowning). Results show that depressed Ss (n?=?21) engaged in significantly less social activity and exhibited less affect-related expression than nondepressed peers (n?=?41). Moderate stability in performance was observed over a 4-wk test–retest interval. Overt behavioral measures were consistently related to parent-completed but not to S-completed measures of depression. Findings suggest that depressive symptoms are reflected in diverse behaviors in everyday life. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Children's knowledge of a best friend: Fact or fancy?

40 4th and 8th graders were questioned about a best friend's personality (e.g., what the friend worries about), the friend's preferences (e.g., favorite sports), and other characteristics that were more external to the friend (e.g., the friend's birthdate). Accuracy of knowledge was determined by comparing Ss' responses with their friend's self-reports. Also assessed were Ss' frequency of contact with the friend, their attraction to the friend, the duration of their friendship, and their cognitive level as judged by the Raven Standard Progressive Matrices. Results indicate that 8th graders knew more than 4th graders about a friend's personality characteristics and preferences, suggesting that the intimacy of best friendships increases with age. Cognitive level, frequency of contact, and the duration of a friendship predicted significant portions of the variance in external knowledge. Frequency of contact was the only significant predictor of intimate knowledge; cognitive level and attraction to the friend were marginally significant predictors. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Implosive therapy with semiclinical phobias.

Describes a 2-phase investigation using 52 female volunteers with semiclinical phobias of insects. Ss' interview data support vicarious learning family-dependency interpretations rather than traumatic conditioning interpretations of the etiology of phobias. Compared with previous samples of phobic college students Ss showed significantly greater degrees of fear on an overt-behavior assessment test and self-report measures (e.g., Fazio's Inventory of Reported Fears). A brief course of implosive therapy was not found to be as effective as a form of treatment based on J. Andrews' suggestions. Treatment-research implications are briefly discussed. (33 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The impact of caregiving and role strain on family life: Comparisons between mothers of children with cystic fibrosis and matched controls.

Compared daily activity patterns and extent of role strain between 20 mothers caring for an infant or toddler with cystic fibrosis (CF) and 20 matched control mothers. Ss completed a home interview, 3 questionnaire measures of role strain, and, subsequently, 6 daily phone diaries during which they tracked their day's activities. Ss in the CF group spent significantly more time in medical care activities on both week and weekend days, and more time in chores and child care on weekends. Additionally, Ss in the CF group had a less diverse pattern of recreation and spent less time in play and recreation activities. No differences between the 2 groups were found on self-report measures of role strain. However, on a behavioral role strain index, Ss in the CF group evidenced greater role strain. The importance of including both behavioral and perceptual measures of role strain is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The phenomenon of panic.

Assessed 108 20–67 yr old patients complaining of anxiety using a structured interview and categorized them into the DSM-III anxiety-disorder and major-depression categories. The incidence and nature of panic was examined in a detailed fashion in Ss in 2 separate interviews and included a search for any difference as a function of whether panic was predictable or cued (e.g., panic when encountering a phobic object or situation) or unpredictable. At least 83% of Ss in each diagnostic category admitted to having had a panic attack. Frequency of DSM-III panic attacks distinguished among categories, but few differences emerged among diagnostic categories on severity of the 12 DSM-III symptoms associated with panic. Symptom severity was also similar for Ss reporting either predictable or unpredictable panic. However, Ss with unpredictable panic reported a significantly greater number of the 12 symptoms than did those with predictable panic. These data point to differences between these 2 types of panic and underline the importance of discovering the nature of these differences. (38 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Girlfriend, boyfriend: Age and sex differences in intimate friendship.

Investigated changes in intimate friendship with same- and opposite-sex friends in preadolescence and adolescence, using the Intimacy Scale. Ss were Israeli children from the 5th, 7th, 9th, and 11th grades (60 boys and 60 girls from each grade), who rated their friendship with a same- or opposite-sex best friend. There was a significant age difference in overall intimacy with same-sex friends. Frankness and spontaneity, knowing and sensitivity, attachment, exclusiveness, and giving and sharing were factors that changed with age. Trust and loyalty, and taking and imposing did not. Opposite-sex friendship revealed a significant increase in intimacy with age. Boys and girls did not differ in reported opposite-sex friendship in the 5th and 7th grades, whereas girls in the 9th and 11th grades reported higher intimacy than did boys. This sex-by-age pattern of interaction was particularly evident for attachment and for trust and loyalty. Girls were higher in knowing and sensitivity, giving and sharing, and taking and imposing. The implications for further differentiation among types of peer relations and interrelation of dyadic friendship and cognitive growth are discussed. (42 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of client preference and expectancy upon the initial interview.

Used a 2 * 3 design with 10 Ss per cell to show how initial counseling interview process and outcome are affected by (a) assigning clients to either more preferred or less preferred counselors; (b) giving clients either positive, nonexistent, or negative expectancy inductions regarding their counselor assignments; and (c) congruence and incongruence between clients' expectations and experiences. Process and outcome were assessed using client and counselor self-report measures and audiotape segment ratings. More preferred assignment conditions received more favorable tape ratings than did less preferred assignment conditions. Positive or no-expectancy conditions revealed a more favorable counseling outcome than did negative expectancy conditions. Most Ss showed increased preferences for counselors seen despite congruence or incongruence between their expectations and experiences. (39 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Externality as a function of obesity in children: Pervasive style or eating-specific attribute?

The developmental sources of the link between stylistic externality and food-related externality found in the obese by S. Schachter and his associates (e.g., Schachter and J. Rodin, 1974) were explored by testing whether the externality phenomena that have been found to differentiate obese and normal adults are also discriminators of obese and normal children. Based on teacher ratings of obesity, 28 distinctly overweight and 28 normal weight Ss in Grades 2–5 were selected. Ss were assessed on 3 measures (a) the eating of shelled or unshelled peanuts, (b) their estimations of the length of a boring or interesting film, and (c) their rod-and-frame test-measured field dependence. Results suggest that obese children as young as 7–22 yrs of age show an external responsiveness to salient food cues but do not yet show a generally external perceptual style. (33 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Age and epogenic influences on aspirations of minority and majority group children.

Investigated the educational, financial, and occupational aspirations of 48 Anglo-American, 56 Mexican-American, and 55 Negro 12-15 yr olds, using a combination of a cross-sectional approach, a repeated measures design with matched groups, and a longitudinal approach. Ss completed an open-ended and multiple-choice aspiration questionnaire in l967 and in l970. The expectations of the Mexican-Americans were the lowest in the l967 administration, and those of the Anglo-Americans were the highest. In 1970, expectations of the minority groups had increased and those of the Anglo-Americans had decreased due to epogenic influences (e.g., the La Raza or the Black Power movements). In the longitudinal study, aspirations of the Anglos were stable, while the aspirations of the minority group members declined. The counteracting effects of S's increasing age and epogenic influences are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Judging the important issues in moral dilemmas: An objective measure of development.

Using Kohlberg's moral stages, statements were written to exemplify stage characteristics. 73 9th graders, 40 12th graders, 40 undergraduates, and 40 graduate students (seminarians and doctoral students in moral philosophy) were asked to select the statement defining the most important issue in a moral dilemma. The importance attributed to principled (Stages 5 and 6) moral statements (the P score) evidenced developmental trends: The P score differentiated student groups of varied advancement-junior high, senior high, college, and graduate students (F >48.5); P correlated in the .60s with age, comprehension of social-moral concepts, and Kohlberg's scale-and less so but significantly with IQ. The way Ss chose important issues was not only an intellectual skill but also value related: P correlated in the .60s with attitude measures (e.g., a law and order test and a libertarian democracy measure). A 2nd student sample and an adult sample provided replications. Test-retest correlation of the P score was .81. The methodological advantages of an objective moral judgment measure are discussed. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social networks and developmental psychopathology: A comparison of adolescent children of a depressed, arthritic, or normal parent.

Investigated how social networks were linked to symptomatology and self-esteem among 3 groups of high-risk and normal adolescents (aged 12–28 yrs). 16 Ss with a depressed parent, 16 Ss with a parent with rheumatoid arthritis, and 16 Ss with parents free from psychological or physical disorder were administered the Hopkins Symptom Checklist and measures of self-esteem and social networks. Additional social network, friendship, and parent–friend boundary density variables were assessed during a semistructured interview. Although there were few between-group differences in mean levels of network variables, there were striking between-group differences in the pattern of associations between network variables and mental health. For Ss with a depressed or arthritic parent, more social support for problematic situations, stronger friendships, and more parent–peer linkages were related to much poorer adjustment. For Ss with disorder-free parents, these same network variables were related to much healthier adjustment. The discussion considers how developmental, psychodynamic, and social-structural factors may interact to affect well-being. (36 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Does the computer make a difference? Computerized versus face-to-face versus self-report assessment of alcohol, drug, and tobacco use.

Evaluated the hypothesis that individuals may provide more accurate information about sensitive areas to a computer than they would in a face-to-face interview or in a self-report questionnaire. Histories of alcohol, drug, and tobacco use were collected at an addiction treatment center for 150 clients (aged 14–62 yrs) who had been randomly assigned to either computerized-interview, face-to-face interview, or self-report formats (e.g., Michigan Alcoholism Screening Test; Alcohol, Drug, and Tobacco Use History). Multivariate analyses revealed no important differences in reliability, level of problems, or consumption patterns reported across the 3 assessment formats. However, Ss did give differential ratings of the assessment experience. The computerized interview was rated as less friendly, but shorter, more relaxing, lighter, more interesting, and faster than the face-to-face or self-report formats. Detailed analyses of client factors within each assessment format found that the computerized interview was most acceptable to Ss with good visual-motor performance skills and least preferred by better educated and defensive Ss. Caution must be exercised, however, when generalizing these findings beyond the context of treatment-seeking clients. (39 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-other contrast and the development of personal constructs.

Examined whether the distribution of like-self and unlike-self judgments would make perceived differences between self and others stand out as maximally salient. 740 anglophones and 365 francophones (aged 8–18 yrs) completed a repertory grid test in which Ss categorized both themselves and 11 acquaintances successively in terms of 12 bipolar constructs (e.g., active–passive). There was a significant linear relationship between age and the relative proportion of like-self judgments in both linguistic groups. This relationship gradually decreased from about 67% at age 8 yrs to approximately 63% during midadolescence. This finding, which is consistent with the results of earlier studies, is discussed within the framework of personal construct theory. It is suggested that perceived differences between self and others may become increasingly salient as an individual's personal constructs develop, until eventually these differences tend to stand out maximally. (French abstract) (40 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Young children's incidental and intentional retention of televised events.

Determined whether young children show a visual-superiority effect (i.e., higher retention of visual than auditory information) only when they view cartoons for entertainment. 24 preschoolers' short-term recognition of audio and video information was assessed under conditions of intentional and incidental learning. Off-task glancing was also measured while Ss were actually viewing the show. Contrary to expectations, forewarning Ss that they would be tested on the show's content increased the magnitude of the visual-superiority effect, even though more frequent off-task glancing occurred in conjunction with intentional than with incidental instructions. Findings are discussed in terms of S. Ward and D. B. Wackman's (1973) stage model for processing televised information. (6 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-schemas and risk for depression: A prospective study.

Two longitudinal experiments with 375 undergraduates investigated the role of depressive self-schemas in vulnerability to depression. Ss were divided into 5 groups hypothesized to be at differential risk for depression according to a schema model: depressed schematic, depressed nonschematic, nondepressed schematic, nondepressed nonschematic, and psychopathology control. In Exp I, Ss were followed regularly for 4 mo with self-report and clinical interview measures of depression (e.g., Beck Depression Inventory). There was no evidence of risk for depression associated with schema status apart from initial mood and no interaction of life stress events and schemas. In Exp II, links among self-schemas, information processing, and mood status were investigated. It was shown that depressive self-schemas did not exert an ongoing, active influence on everyday information processing; instead, current mood affected information processing. Remitted depressed Ss resembled nondepressed rather than depressed Ss. Findings support the distinction between concomitant and vulnerability schemas noted by N. Kuiper et al (in press) and help to clarify differences between cognitions that are symptoms of depression and those that may play a causal role under certain conditions. (41 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)