Stalking the missing link between moral development stages.

Studied the relationship between L. Kohlberg's (1971) stages of moral development and the process of decision making utilized by 214 persons, aged 14–63 yrs, during the resolution of hypothetical moral dilemmas. Stage of moral development, as determined by the Ethical Reasoning Scale, was used to classify Ss responding to the Preferential Reasoning Profile, an instrument requiring Ss to weight reasons for pursuing a course of action. A multiple discriminant analysis indicated that it was not possible to distinguish moral development stages on the basis of optimum differential weighting of the variables of the decision-making matrix. Results indicate that the method of adjudicating moral claims is informed by a consistent rationality and sense of fairness across stages of moral development. (11 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Moral development in Bahamian school children: A 3-year examination of Kohlberg's stages of moral development.

Interviewed 426 Bahamian male and female school children aged 8–17 yrs over a 3-yr period utilizing L. Kohlberg's (1969) moral dilemmas to test the hypotheses of cultural universality and the age relatedness of the Kohlberg stage sequence in the development of moral reasoning. Longitudinal, cross-sectional, and sequential strategies were utilized. Results indicate a general upward stage movement within and between age groups. There was an advance in moral reasoning across subsequent cohorts at the same ages. There was little evidence of any sex differences, and no individuals reasoned beyond Stage 3. Results are interpreted as supporting the hypotheses. The major source of change was due to time-of-testing effects. There was additional developmental change influenced by age and cohort factors. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Moral development in Bahamian school children: A cross-cultural examination of Kohlberg's stages of moral reasoning.

Individually interviewed 7-14 yr old Bahamian schoolchildren, utilizing 3 of L. Kohlberg's (1958) moral dilemmas. An age trend in moral development was obtained, supporting previous cross-cultural research with Kohlberg's moral development stages. The only sex difference was among 13-14 yr olds. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of logic in moral reasoning and development.

The frequently examined hypothesis proposed by L. Kohlberg (1969) that logical development is a necessary but insufficient condition of moral development was examined in cross-age analyses of approximately 225 adolescents and adults, aged 16–50 yrs. Two kinds of moral scores—one representing Kohlberg's system, and the other an interactional formulation—and 3 scores of formal operations based on Piagetian tasks were used. To explicate the logical/moral relation, controls for age, socioeconomic status, IQ, or educational levels were applied to correlational analyses within sex groups. Also, a sex-differentiated structural analysis was done. Neither set of results was consistent with Kohlberg's hypothesis. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The nature, variety, and social patterning of moral responses to transgression.

Reactions to transgression in children was assessed through analysis of a story completion test given to 6th graders. The to-be-completed stories related themes of acts of aggression by children against others which would usually be unacceptable to society. Stories were categorized re: degree of reliance on self or other as source of control. Mother's method of discipline was obtained through interview; the disciplinary methods were divided into the more physically punitive (hitting, yelling at) and the more psychological (withdrawal of love, explanation, etc.) Results demonstrated that in general 'moral behavior' was a function of anticipated external punishment. Self-criticism was viewed as an instrumental response related to such anticipation. Differences re: determinants of moral attitudes and consequent reliance on self or other were found in terms of socioeconomic level. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The consolidation/transition model in moral reasoning development.

The consolidation/transition model conceptualizes development as entailing a cyclical pattern of alternating consolidation and transition phases and posits that stage advance is predicted by a specific distribution of reasoning across stages indicative of disequilibrium (more reasoning above than below the mode, with a high degree of mixture). The validity of this model was examined in the context of moral reasoning development with the use of standard statistical techniques as well as Bayesian techniques that can better account for classification error. In this longitudinal study, 64 children and adolescents participated in 5 annual administrations of the Moral Judgment Interview. The distribution of their reasoning across stages was used to predict subsequent development. The results support the hypotheses regarding cyclical patterns of change and predictors of stage transition and demonstrate the utility of Bayesian techniques for evaluating developmental change. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The relationship between moral decision making and patterns of consolidation and transition in moral judgment development.

Following models that describe intraindividual correlates of stage transitions (S. S. Snyder & D. H. Feldman, 1984), this study assessed the relation between a measure of consolidation and transition in moral judgment development and the utility of moral concepts in sociomoral decision making. The study extends previous research in suggesting that individuals use moral concepts differently as they cycle through periods of consolidation and transition. With multiple cross-sectional and longitudinal samples, findings indicate that participants' reliance on a Kohlbergian moral framework as measured by the Defining Issues Test is highest during periods of consolidation and lowest during transitions. As participants move into periods of consolidation, the utility of moral stage information increases. Thus, this study indicates that the consolidation and transition model can be used to help identify individuals who are more or less likely to use Kohlberg's moral stages in their moral decision making. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Empathy and moral development in adolescence.

Examined the relationship between empathy and 2 measures of moral development (prosocial moral reasoning and helping) with a sample of 72 Ss in Grades 9, 11, and 12. Parental socialization practices were also examined. Each S completed an affective empathy questionnaire, and 2 91-item Q-sorts—one concerning the mother's childrearing practices, the other pertaining to the father's. Empathy was significantly related to moral reasoning for both sexes and to helping for males. Maternal child-rearing practices were related to sons' empathy; mothers of highly empathic boys were nonpunitive, nonrestrictive, egalitarian, encouraged their offspring to discuss their problems, and set high standards for their sons. Females' empathy was not associated with parental socialization practices, perhaps due to a ceiling effect. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A test of Piaget's theories of moral development.

This study treats two main hypotheses involved in Piaget's and Lerner's work: (1) That the questions used for the interviews upon which these theories are based involve a single underlying dimension or entity other than the child's age; and (2) That this dimension of moral judgment is associated with the type of authority relations to which a child is subjected. Upon analysis, the moral-judgment questions used reveal three, rather than one, independent clusters and indices based upon these clusters showed no significant association with measures of parental authority. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The development of moral thought: Review and evaluation of Kohlberg's approach.

Evaluates the evidence supporting L. Kohlberg's theory on the development of moral thought. A systematic review of the literature suggests that there are several conceptual and methodological problems with the approach. The problems include the derivation, administration, and scoring of the model's primary measurement device (Moral Judgment Scale); the lack of evidence for both the reliability and validity of that device; and the absence of direct evidence for the basic assumptions of the theory. It is concluded that the empirical utility of the model has yet to be demonstrated. (40 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive and motivational parallels in moral development.

Two experiments examined parallels between L. Kohlberg's (1963, 1976) cognitive developmental stages and a hierarchy of incentives (motivations) based on Kohlberg's "motives for moral action" aspect. In Exp I, 134 undergraduates were simultaneously administered 2 perceptual motor tasks in 1 of 3 treatment conditions. In each treatment the opportunity for greater monetary reward on one task conflicted with one of the following incentives for performance on the other task: (a) interpersonal approval, (b) meeting the expectations of authority, and (c) choice in favor of distributive equality. As predicted by Kohlberg's moral judgment scale, Stage 3 Ss performed better for the interpersonal approval incentive, while Stage 4 Ss performed better to meet the expectations of authority. Postconventional Ss responded in favor of distributive equality to a greater extent than conventional (Stage 3 or Stage 4) Ss. Exp II included only Stage 3 and Stage 4 Ss and conflicted interpersonal approval directly with the expectations of authority. Results closely replicate those of Exp I. (French summary) (7 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relation of moral judgment development to formal education.

Tested Ss from an ongoing longitudinal study initiated by the present 1st author and colleagues (see record 1974-32073-001) at 2-yr intervals after high school graduation on the Defining Issues Test and other measures of moral thinking (e.g., socio-moral concepts test, political attitudes test) to investigate the relationship of moral-judgment development to formal education. In a 3rd testing 4 yrs after high school, 59 Ss participated; of these, 39 were in a 4th testing 6 yrs later. When Ss were divided into low- and high-education groups, depending on how many years of college they attended, the groups showed increasingly divergent developmental pathways. The high-education group showed increasing gains, and the low-education group showed a leveling off. Years in college added significantly to the predictability of moral judgment in young adulthood, above and beyond that accounted for by initial high school scores on the same moral-judgment measures. Results complement and extend findings from other cross-sectional and longitudinal studies on the relation of formal education to moral judgment. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The development of children's moral sensibility: Individual differences and emotion understanding.

Developmental changes and individual differences in children's conceptions of transgressions were studied in 46 children in their kindergarten and 1st-grade years; the children had previously been studied with their mothers and siblings as 2- and 3-year-olds. Differences in responses to moral transgressions in kindergarten were related to mothers' control management and to siblings' friendly behavior in the preschool period, early understanding of emotions, and verbal ability. Family variables and emotion understanding were also correlated with responses to moral transgressions in 1st grade. The incidence of children's attribution of happiness or mixed feelings to victimizers did not change between 6 and 7 years. The findings suggest experiences with both mothers and siblings, and differences in how children assess the feelings of others show consistent and comparatively long-term associations with children's responses to moral issues. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Short-term longitudinal evidence for the sequentiality of Kohlberg's early stages of moral judgment.

Investigated (a) how the reliability of an instrument for assessing developmental stages is established and (b) the relation between reliability and sequentiality of the stages. It is argued that reliability of the instrument cannot be established directly by traditional methods but must be inferred from a validation of the stage sequence. Short-term longitudinal data were obtained for 50 5-8 yr olds on the Kohlberg Moral Judgment Interview. For each of 2 6-mo intervals, it was not possible to reject the null hypothesis that progressive change and regressive change were equally likely. Over 1 yr, however, significant progressive change was found, most of which consisted of slight advancements toward the next stage in Kohlberg's sequence. It is argued that the considerable short-term fluctuation obtained may be due either to measurement error or to genuine fluctuation in the individual's judgment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sequencing of intrapsychic stages of vocational development.

Constructed a scale to test the formulation that in vocational development, self-differentiation precedes competence, which precedes independence, which in turn precedes commitment. If this were true, ratings on prior stages should be higher than on each succeeding one. Staff ratings on scale items related to each stage were made on 222 clients in a deaf rehabilitation project, who were divided into high- and low-functioning (socially and vocationally) workshop and counseling groups. For all 4 subgroups, average self-differentiation ratings exceeded competence, which exceeded independence. In only 1 group did commitment follow in predicted sequence, which may reflect experimental conditions or the nature of the concept. Support for the posited sequence of purely intrapsychic stages of vocational development was found. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The complex nature of unique and shared effects in hierarchical linear regression: Implications for developmental psychology.

Hierarchical linear regression and related techniques, such as commonality analysis, path analysis, and linear structural equation models with mediator variables, are often used to determine the extent to which the influence of an exogenous variable on a dependent variable, A, is "unique" to this exogenous variable, or "shared with" another predictor variable, B. The authors formally show that shared and unique effects are related to the partial correlation between A and B controlling for the exogenous variable. We discuss the implications of this property of hierarchical linear regression with a special consideration of the role of chronological age in developmental psychology and warn against the uncritical use of hierarchical linear regression procedures. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Vicarious moral licensing: The influence of others' past moral actions on moral behavior.

This article investigates the effect of others' prior nonprejudiced behavior on an individual's subsequent behavior. Five studies supported the hypothesis that people are more willing to express prejudiced attitudes when their group members' past behavior has established nonprejudiced credentials. Study 1a showed that participants who were told that their group was more moral than similar other groups were more willing to describe a job as better suited for Whites than for African Americans. In Study 1b, when given information on group members' prior nondiscriminatory behavior (selecting a Hispanic applicant in a prior task), participants subsequently gave more discriminatory ratings to the Hispanic applicant for a position stereotypically suited for majority members (Whites). In Study 2, moral self-concept mediated the effect of others' prior nonprejudiced actions on a participant's subsequent prejudiced behavior such that others' past nonprejudiced actions enhanced the participant's moral self-concept, and this inflated moral self-concept subsequently drove the participant's prejudiced ratings of a Hispanic applicant. In Study 3, the moderating role of identification with the credentialing group was tested. Results showed that participants expressed more prejudiced attitudes toward a Hispanic applicant when they highly identified with the group members behaving in nonprejudiced manner. In Study 4, the credentialing task was dissociated from the participants' own judgmental task, and, in addition, identification with the credentialing group was manipulated rather than measured. Consistent with prior studies, the results showed that participants who first had the opportunity to view an in-group member's nonprejudiced hiring decision were more likely to reject an African American man for a job stereotypically suited for majority members. These studies suggest a vicarious moral licensing effect. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

The moral status of mice.

Illustrates how assigning roles and labels has a profound effect on ethical decision making by typifying the roles assigned to mice by a research laboratory. The good mice (used in research) are offered government and institutional protections, while the bad mice (free ranging pests) are trapped and often suffer miserable deaths. Feeder mice occupy a gray area in terms of moral status, being both prey for other carnivores and Ss in predator research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The self-importance of moral identity.

Recent theorizing in moral psychology extends rationalist models by calling attention to social and cultural influences (J. Haidt, 2001). Six studies using adolescents, university students, and adults measured the associations among the self-importance of moral identity, moral cognitions, and behavior. The psychometric properties of the measure were assessed through an examination of the underlying factor structure (Study 1) and convergent, nomological, and discriminant validity analyses (Studies 2 and 3). The predictive validity of the instrument was assessed by examinations of the relationships among the self-importance of moral identity, various psychological outcomes, and behavior (Studies 4, 5, and 6). The results are discussed in terms of models of moral behavior, social identity measurement, and the need to consider moral self-conceptions in explaining moral conduct. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Family education to enhance the moral atmosphere of the family and the moral development of adolescents.

Examined the effects of a course for families in democratic conflict resolution on (a) the family's collective decision-making abilities, and (b) the moral reasoning of adolescent participants. 16 couples and their adolescent children were divided into 3 groups: parents and their adolescents, parents only, and a control group. Both experimental groups met for 10 weekly 2.5-hr sessions and received training in conflict resolution and the use of family meetings. Assessment was based on the Parental Attitude Research Instrument, 2 self-report inventories, a behavioral role-play test, the Kohlberg Moral Judgment Interview, and an analysis of tape recordings of the family meetings. A 1-yr follow-up assessment of the Kohlberg measure was also used. Parents in both experimental groups significantly increased their equalitarian attitudes toward family decision making. Furthermore, families in both groups significantly improved their effectiveness in collective decision making; the parent–adolescent group showed greater improvement than the parent group on most of the variables measured. Finally, the results suggest that adolescents who participated in the training significantly improved their scores in moral reasoning. This gain was maintained at follow-up. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)