Prediction of infiltration rate and the effect on energy use for ice rinks in hot and humid climates

Infiltration of hot humid air into an ice rink situated in subtropical region was investigated. A recreation ice rink in Taipei was used as the building model and measurements of temperature, humidity, and pressure difference were performed for different outdoor air conditions. Sherman infiltration model was used to investigate building stack and wind effects. Altogether eight cases including four points on IIHF (International Ice Hockey Federation) fog lines were studied for optimal energy operations. Cooling and dehumidification characteristics due to air infiltration were investigated. Annual analysis on air infiltration and building energy was performed for monthly average weather conditions. Stack effect was found to be the most important factor of infiltration. The effects of seasonal temperatures could result in five times difference of infiltration rates. Wind effects were found to affect the peak infiltration rate more than 50%. The air change rate was found to be as high as 0.6 ACH due to stack and wind effects. The moisture infiltration peaked in summer season and can be more than several times of that in winter. It was also found in the investigation that the total heat load due to infiltration can be as high as 13,540 GJ/year for the ice rink studied. Operating conditions were found to reduce the total annual heat load by more than 50% under the IIHF fog lines. The results of this study will contribute to the technical literature in the design of year round ice rinks in tropical and subtropical regions.     

Evaluation of the Alberta air infiltration model using measurements and inter-model comparisons

The Alberta air infiltration model (AIM-2) is a simplified single-zone model for predicting building air infiltration rates with a number of salient features. This paper presents an empirical study of this model using measured data from 16 detached houses in Ottawa, Canada. A single-fan depressurization test was first conducted for each house to determine its leakage characteristics. Then, the tracer gas concentration decay technique was employed to measure air infiltration rates under a wide range of weather conditions. The AIM-2 model was used to predict air infiltration rates for each of the 16 houses for the measured weather conditions. These model predictions were then compared with the air infiltration rates determined with the tracer gas tests. Additionally, the predictions of the AIM-2 model were compared with those of another model, the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory (LBL) model. The AIM-2 model tended to underestimate air infiltration rates but performed better than the LBL model. On average, the AIM-2 model has an error of 19% while the LBL model has an error of 25%. The AIM-2 model requires an estimation of the house's leakage distribution, which may have contributed to some of this disagreement. An attempt was made to use genetic algorithms to reduce the uncertainty caused by estimating these model inputs.     

Factors affecting the hydraulic performance of infiltration based SUDS in clay

The influence of small scale soil heterogeneity on the hydraulic performance of infiltration based sustainable urban drainage systems (SUDS) was studied using field data from a clayey glacial till and groundwater simulations with the integrated surface water and groundwater model HydroGeoSphere. Simulations of homogeneous soil blocks with hydraulic properties ranging from sand to clay showed that infiltration capacities vary greatly for the different soil types observed in glacial till. The inclusion of heterogeneities dramatically increased infiltration volume by a factor of 22 for a soil with structural changes above and below the CaCO₃ boundary. Infiltration increased further by 8% if tectonic fractures were included and by another 61% if earthworm burrows were added. Comparison of HydroGeoSphere infiltration hydrographs with a simple soakaway model (Roldin et al., 2012) showed similar results for homogeneous soils but indicated that exclusion of small scale soil physical features may greatly underestimate hydraulic performance of infiltration based SUDS.     

Probabilistic analysis of air infiltration in low-rise buildings

The probabilistic model (PROMO) applied to the problem of air infiltration in low-rise buildings is presented. The model allows estimation of the effect of variations of climatic conditions on air exchange in a building. Probabilistic output in the form of probability density function of air change rate forms a ground for reliability analysis of adequate ventilation. PROMO model is applied to analyse the air exchange caused by air infiltration in a house situated near Gothenburg. The model is validated on the basis of the results of measurements obtained for that house.     

Building leakage,infiltration, and energy performance analyses for Finnish detached houses

This study focuses on the relation between the airtightness of a building envelope, infiltration, and energy use of a typical modern Finnish detached house in the cold climate of Finland. The study is conducted with an empirically tested dynamic IDA-ICE simulation model of a detached house. The effect of several factors, such as Finnish climate and wind conditions, balance of ventilation system and leakage distribution, on infiltration was studied and a simple adapted model for the rough estimation of annual infiltration in Finnish detached houses was determined from the numerical simulation results. The energy impact of infiltration is also studied, taking into account the infiltration heat recovery effect. According to the results, infiltration causes about 15–30% of the energy use of space heating including ventilation in the typical Finnish detached house. The average infiltration rate and heat energy use increase almost linearly with the building leakage rate n₅₀. Finland can be roughly divided into two zones based on the average infiltration rate of detached houses, for which stack-induced infiltration is typically dominant, regardless of the climate zone. The infiltration heat recovery effect is minor in the studied detached house.     

Air infiltration induced inter-unit dispersion and infectious risk assessment in a high-rise residential building

Identifying possible airborne transmission routes and assessing the associated infectious risks are essential for implementing effective control measures. This study focuses on the infiltration-induced inter-unit pollutant dispersion in a high-rise residential (HRR) building. The outdoor wind pressure distribution on the building facades was obtained from the wind tunnel experiments. And the inter-household infiltration and tracer gas transmission were simulated using multi-zone model. The risk levels along building height and under different wind directions were examined, and influence of component leakage area was analysed. It is found that, the cross-infection risk can be over 20% because of the low air infiltration rate below 0.7 ACH, which is significantly higher than the risk of 9% obtained in our previous on-site measurement with air change rate over 3 ACH. As the air infiltration rate increases along building height, cross-infection risk is generally higher on the lower floors. The effect of wind direction on inter-unit dispersion level is significant, and the presence of a contaminant source in the windward side results in the highest cross-infection risks in other adjacent units on the same floor. Properly improving internal components tightness and increasing air change via external components are beneficial to the control of internal inter-unit transmission induced by infiltration. However, this approach may increase the cross-infection via the external transmission, and effective control measures should be further explored considering multiple transmission routes.     

基于面层渗透系数的路表水渗入率设计

根据对渗入率设计指标的分析,一定损坏状况的路面渗透系数是影响路表水渗入率大小的关键。为此,本文经过对透水面层下设透水层的渗流理论的分析,建立了该种条件下的渗入率设计模型,并根据测试数据标定了模型参数,确定了不同养护等级的渗入率计算方法。     

考虑裂隙及雨水入渗影响的膨胀土边坡稳定性分析

对膨胀土边坡进行了考虑裂隙和降雨入渗影响的稳定性分析 ,通过工程实例比较了考虑裂隙和不考虑裂隙的差别。研究结果表明 ,考虑裂隙影响的边坡降雨入渗和稳定性分析较为合理和实用。     

Groundwater contamination potential from stormwater infiltration practices

The potential effects of stormwater on groundwater quality was estimated based on the likely presence of problem constituents in the stormwater, their mobility through soils, the type of treatment received before infiltration, and the infiltration method used. The constituents of most concern include chloride, certain pesticides (lindane and chlordane), organic toxicants (1,3-dichlorobenzene, pyrene and fluoranthene), pathogens, and some heavy metals (nickel and zinc). Reported instances of groundwater contamination associated with stormwater was rare in residential areas where infiltration occurred through surface soils (except for chloride), but was more common (especially for toxicants) in commercial and industrial areas where subsurface infiltration was used.     

降雨入渗对浅埋黄土隧道稳定性的影响

为了研究降雨入渗作用下黄土力学性质劣化对浅埋黄土隧道稳定性的影响,对隧道围岩中的黄土进行了不同含水率和不同围压的剪切、等压三轴试验,结果表明,含水率对黄土力学性质和破坏形态有较大影响。根据试验结果建立了黄土不同含水率的塑性本构关系,对比了计算结果和试验结果,证明了该本构关系能较好地描述黄土的应力应变规律。对不同降雨强度、不同深度的黄土在雨水入渗影响下的含水率分布规律进行分析,并在数值模拟软件中调用建立的不同含水率的黄土塑性本构关系,计算不同降雨强度下隧道结构的受力和变形,结果表明:考虑降雨入渗后隧道结构变形和受力增加明显,其中,拱顶沉降增幅达到46%,隧道初期支护应力增加20%～27%。将浅埋黄土隧道结构变形监测数据与数值模拟结果对比,验证了黄土本构关系的正确性,所模拟的降雨入渗对隧道结构稳定性的影响符合实际工程。     

基于主动加热光纤法的毛细阻滞入渗模型试验研究

毛细阻滞效应是多层、不同粒径非饱和土入渗过程中的一个自然现象。为了探究多层土水分入渗的毛细阻滞过程,设计了室内模型试验,采用主动加热光纤法(AHFO法)对多层土的水分迁移进行试验,并结合频域反射法(FDR法)和直接观测法作为验证。试验结果表明:相较于FDR法和直接观测法,AHFO法对降雨入渗所产生的毛细阻滞现象具有较好的观测效果,可观测出水分运移的更多细节;运用FDR法,对AHFO传感器进行原位标定,曲线拟合精度R2均大于0.93,具有较高的体积含水率监测准确度;毛细阻滞层对降雨入渗具有明显的阻滞效应,即存储屏障上部入渗和减少水分向下部水体渗出。相关研究结论为毛细阻滞现象研究以及土壤水分场监测提供了一种新的监测方法。     

无限长均质斜坡降雨入渗解析解

降雨是导致边坡失稳的最主要的环境因素,研究降雨入渗对边坡稳定性的影响,关键和难点是计算降雨入渗在边坡土体中引起的渗流场。采用Fourier积分变换分别对降雨强度小于和大于土体饱和渗透系数情况下的斜坡入渗解析解进行了推导,并给出了这两种情况下斜坡入渗解析解的统一表达式。该解不仅能反映非饱和土特性及斜坡的影响,还能反映当降雨强度大于土体饱和渗透系数时,坡面边界由流量边界转化为水头边界的动态变化过程,便于更全面地对降雨情况下斜坡的入渗规律进行研究。通过与有限元软件的计算结果进行对比,证明该解是稳定可靠的,且其形式简单,计算效率高;该解可精确计算坡面积水时间及任意时间点及空间点的孔隙水压力值,并用于评估降雨入渗对非饱和土斜坡稳定性的影响。     

基于Mein-aLarson模型的非饱和锐利浸润锋模型

降雨入渗模型在渗流理论、地质灾害评价等方面具有重要的理论意义及工程应用价值。基于饱和入渗的Mein-Larson模型及李宁等学者提出的非饱和入渗模型,利用非饱和土的Van Genuchten水土特性及渗透系数模型,提出了简化的非饱和锐利浸润锋模型,用以分析均匀含水率土体及含水率随深度变化的土体,其含水率、浸润深度、吸力等随雨强、降雨持时的变化。通过3种模型在不同工况下与有限元模拟结果进行对比,验证了本文提出的模型能更好的描述黄土中的非饱和水分迁移。     

Research on the improvement of rainfall infiltration behavior of expansive soil slope by the protection of polymer waterproof coating

The repetitive expansion and contraction cracks, as well as the strength attenuation induced by the precipitation-evaporation cycles, are important factors influencing the instability of expansive soil slopes. In this study, a polymer waterproof coating was proposed to protect the expansive soil slope against slope instability caused by precipitation penetration. The bonding performance of expansive soil blocks (with different soil densities) and polymer waterproof coatings (with different coating thicknesses) were analyzed by performing a laboratory pull-out test. The impacts of different protection methods and protection layer coverage on rainwater infiltration behavior were studied using three groups of slope model tests and numerical simulation approaches. The results showed that the bond strength between the expansive soil test block and the coating increased with the increase in soil compaction density, and the test block strength was an important factor affecting the bond performance. The influence of density of test block on bond strength was greater than that of coating thickness. The calculation formula of bond strength was obtained by fitting the test results. Compared to the unprotected slope, the fluctuation of soil moisture content and rainwater infiltration rate in the slope protected by polymer coating was found to be the least. Protective layer of polymer coating proved to have the most significant role in blocking rainwater infiltration, followed by polymer coating + three-dimensional vegetation net protective layer. When the coverage rate of the protective layer exceeds more than 90%, the effect of blocking rainwater infiltration was remarkable. Simultaneously, the variation range of slope water content, rainwater infiltration depth, and infiltration rate decreased significantly. This research result provides a new solution for expansive soil slope protection and rainwater infiltration control.     

降雨条件下一维土柱垂直入渗模型试验研究及其渗透系数求解

 为研究降雨条件下一维土柱的入渗规律及求解非饱和土体的渗透系数,开发一套模拟降雨条件下一维土柱垂直入渗模型试验装置,对非饱和重塑黄土土柱做了4组不同降雨强度下的一维垂直入渗试验,得到不同降雨强度下垂直土柱的入渗率时程曲线、浸润峰深度时程曲线及监测点体积含水率的变化规律;提出计算非饱和土体渗透系数的新方法,并结合试验结果,得到试验土样非饱和渗透系数与基质吸力的关系曲线。结果表明：(1) 降雨强度对垂直土柱的入渗影响较大,当降雨强度小于土柱最小入渗能力时,入渗率等于降雨强度;当降雨强度大于土柱最小入渗能力时,入渗率时程曲线呈无压入渗、有压入渗和饱和入渗3阶段变化。(2) 不同降雨强度下,土柱出现积水点和饱和点的历时不同,降雨强度越大出现积水点和饱和点的时间越短,有压入渗阶段越长。(3) 在同一降雨强度下,监测点距土柱上表面越远,其体积含水率时程曲线越密集;而同一监测点,降雨强度越大,其体积含水率时程曲线越稀疏。(4) 非饱和重塑黄土渗透系数随基质吸力的增大而减小,且渗透系数的对数与基质吸力呈线性变化。     

Estimation of infiltration from leakage and climate indicators

A simple model is developed for the estimation of annual infiltration rates in single- family houses using indicators for both house tightness (air changes at 50 Pa) and site climate (the leakage-infiltration ratio). This technique is best suited to low-accuracy, large dataset problems where detailed data are not available. The method is similar to the method attributed to Kronvall and Persily (i.e. the K-P method), but is derived from a physical model, the LBL infiltration model. The estimation technique is developed assuming a typical, single-story dwelling; correction factors for common variations in building and environmental conditions are tabulated. A map of the leakage-infiltration ratio in the U.S. for the reference case is also presented.     

探讨考虑气阻作用下分层假定的雨水入渗计算分析模型

入渗时间和湿润锋深度关系可依据达西定律和入渗雨水质量守恒即入渗率等于入渗量对时间的导数求解,但Green-Ampt入渗模型以湿润区完全饱和考虑入渗量,同时入渗率也忽略了气阻作用,继而限制了入渗时间和湿润锋深度关系的计算精度。针对这一问题,通过分层假定和增加气阻项的入渗模型分别对入渗量和入渗率进行修正,并应用修正结果计算入渗时间和湿润锋深度的表达式。研究表明：同一入渗深度,考虑气阻项的分层假设模型的入渗时间计算值与实测值吻合度最高,偏离度很低,仅仅围绕实测值有很微小的上下波动,此研究结果对确定如含砂层稳定入渗时间具有重要作用。     

Building leakage analysis and infiltration modelling for an Italian multi-family building

The presented paper aims at detailing the results of an investigation that was recently conducted in Italy to evaluate the contribution infiltration makes to meeting ventilation needs in a recently renovated apartment building and the corresponding energy costs. It is years that increasing importance has been placed on the energy efficiency in residential buildings as about 70% of the existing Italian residential building stock was built before 1976 (i.e. before any measure related to the energy efficiency in buildings). As existing dwellings have been traditionally considered ‘leaky’, the actions for improving their energy efficiency have often determined tighter buildings, raising concerns about whether the amount of infiltration is sufficient to provide occupants with acceptable indoor air quality (IAQ). The current state of knowledge on infiltration in multi-family buildings in terms of measuring procedures, corresponding air change rates and airflow patterns was reviewed. The air tightness of a three-storey, six-unit, multi-family building which can be considered representative of the existing recently renovated Italian building stock was characterized by means of a series of fan pressurization tests. The performed blower door tests are documented and results of the data analysis are reported and discussed. A simulation model was developed; simulations were performed to analyse in detail the winter magnitude of air infiltration. Winter is usually detrimental to IAQ, as severe outdoor weather prompts occupants to keep closed any opening that could allow cold drafts into their homes. Modelling results were validated on the basis of a 3-week monitoring campaign. The developed model enabled to estimate the variation with time of infiltration rates and therefore the influence of infiltrating air on the resulting heat loss and IAQ. Numerical predictions were derived using the EnergyPlus simulation tool which allowed to combine whole building thermal simulation and detailed multi-zone airflow modelling. Results show that, during the considered heating season (October–April), the average air change rate due to infiltration was approximately 0.1 h^?1. It was concluded that infiltration cannot be relied upon to provide adequate ventilation air and, if not assisted by other means of ventilation, IAQ deterioration is likely to occur.     

Slepian models for waves and wave-structure interaction

A regressive form of Slepian modelling was used to develop predictive models for the key variables associated with three quite different experimental data sets. The first data set provided a time series record of the surface elevation for a moderate random seaway. The second data set provided measurements of the wave elevation at the front of a finite draft deep water platform. This data set was significantly more nonlinear since the local wave field was amplified by the presence of the platform. The final data set dealt with the rate of wave run-up and this involved the derivative of the second data set. The results consistently illustrated the need to have an adequate number of events to use as the basis for the regression model. The study presents guidelines for selecting the initial crossing level which is crucial to the Slepian model development. Once the regression model has been established the model allows one to make predictions for other values of level crossing. It was found that the accuracy of those predictions depends on the accuracy of the initial regression process and that reasonable estimates can be obtained.     

降雨条件下压实黄土水分入渗规律模型试验研究

以西北地区黄土高填方工程为研究背景,在自行研发水分迁移特性测试设备的基础上,开展了重塑压实黄土在降雨入渗条件下的水分迁移特性室内模型试验,获得了不同压实度下黄土的"电阻率–饱和度"Archie模型和"饱和度–基质吸力"Fredlund-Xing模型及参数变化规律,建立了基于土电阻率的基质吸力幂指数预测公式;研究了不同压实度黄土在不同雨型条件下的入渗特征及其入渗速率、饱和度、电阻率等随时间和土层深度的变化规律。研究结果表明:(1)雨型不同,压实黄土的入渗特征各异,小雨下入渗线呈"Y"型(最大入渗深度Hmax=0.20~0.35 m),大雨下呈"D"型(Hmax=0.55~0.65 m),暴雨下呈倒"V"字型(Hmax0.8 m),入渗速率与雨量正相关,与土层深度和压实度反相关;(2)土体电阻率变化规律与饱和度变化过程相反,基质吸力预测值和实测电阻率变化方向一致;(3)采用土电阻率方法可以为深入探索黄土高填方的长期变形机制和稳定性预警或灾害防治提供一个新的途径。