我国将在四个领域加强国际合作：开展有自我特色的清洁发展机制

环保总局副局长祝光耀在庆祝《京都议定书》生效高层研讨会上表示，《京都议定书》生效为国际社会对付气候变化问题搭建了一个很好的平台，我国将积极开展清洁发展机制方面的国际合作，推进国际社会减缓和适应气候变化的进程。     

《京都议定书》动态评述

由于俄罗斯最终的批准,《京都议定书》将于2005年2月16日生效,标志着国际社会深化减缓气候变化行动的新时代的开始。但如何实施和实现《京都议定书》规定的减排目标,附件1缔约方面临不同的国情和挑战。其中欧盟的温室气体排放量在2008年至2012年间有望比1990年时的水平减少8.6％,完全有可能实现《京都议定书》目标。而日本和加拿大等国家将面临比较大的困难。《京都议定书》只是人类社会应对全球气候变化挑战的第一步。国际社会将不迟于2005年开始讨论2012年以后(即后京都)的气候政策问题。如何促使美国回到国际气候进程中来,以及促使发展中国家参与,将是谈判的重点。     

《巴黎协定》将于11月4日正式生效

正联合国秘书长潘基文10月5日宣布,应对气候变化的《巴黎协定》将于2016年11月4日正式生效。这份协定凝聚着中国积极参与全球治理、与国际社会携手推进应对气候问题的努力,全球各国对此反响积极。2015年12月,《联合国气候变化框架公约》近200个缔约方在巴黎气候变化大会上达成《巴黎协定》。这是继《京都议定书》后第二份有法律约束力的气候协议,为2020年后全球应对气候变化行动做出     

巴厘路线图

世人瞩目的《联合国气候变化框架公约》第十三次缔约方大会(COP13)和《京都议定书》第三次缔约方会议(MOP3)于2007年12月3～15日在印度尼西亚巴厘岛高调举行。国际社会对本次会议艰难谈判形成的成果称为"巴厘路线图"。路线图包括公约下的"巴厘行动计划"、"京都议定书第三条第九款特设工作组"和议定书第九条的审评这3条主线,和俄罗斯案文、适应基金等支线。路线图为2007～2009年的两年期谈判进程提出方向和时间表,使未来气候谈判进程充满了复杂性和挑战性。如何解读巴厘岛路线图、如何定义"可测量、可报告和可核实"、如何建立适应、减排、技术和资金四个基石以确定2012年之后的国际气候体制,是2009年缔约方会议之前国际社会和各国面临的艰巨任务。     

德班回合：全球主义与功利主义的博弈

11月28日，《联合国气候变化框架公约》第17次缔约方会议和《京都议定书》第7次缔约方会议在南非德班举行。就这次会议前的舆论来看，从BBC到《纽约时报》，西方媒体很少提及《京都议定书》第7次缔约方会议。只有中国的报道始终坚持议定书和气候公约两个会议的形式。虽然只有一词之差，却反映了发达国家和发展中国家，尤其是中国和美国对《京都议定书》上截然不同的态度。     

国际

正德班:《京都议定书》第二承诺期将生效德班气候大会终于在12月11日清晨拉上帷幕。此次会议通过了"德班一揽子决定",同意《京都议定书》第二承诺期在2013年生效。但由于发达国家缺乏政治诚意,"巴厘路线图"谈判仍未完成。中国在会后声明中表示,发达国家在自身减排和向发展中国家提供资金和技术转让支持的政治意愿不足,是影响国际社会合作应对气候变化努力     

国际太阳能新闻

●克林顿批评布什政府对待《京都议定书》的态度(蒙特利尔讯)据国际在线报道,美国前总统克林顿2月9日在蒙特利尔举行的《联合国气候变化框架公约》第11次缔约方大会上表示,布什政府对待《京都议定书》的态度是“非常错误的”。     

气候变化坎昆会议成果及分析

于2010年12月11日清晨落幕的联合国气候变化公约第十六次缔约方大会及《京都议定书》第六次缔约方会议低开高走,在会前各界预期较低的情况下达成了包括一揽子内容的《坎昆协议》,得到国际社会的赞扬和一些国家的积极评价。坎昆会议取得的成果有利于国际社会恢复对多边体制的信心,但《坎昆协议》是中间产物,一些关键问题有待后续谈判最终落实确定。本文描述了坎昆成果的内容及各方反应,对《坎昆协议》进行了分析并提出了日后谈判面临的问题。     

清洁发展机制项目运行管理暂行办法

一、总则第一条根据我国批准的《联合国气候变化框架公约》(以下简称《公约》)和核准的《京都议定书》(以下简称《议定书》)的规定以及缔约方会议的有关决定,为加强中国政府对清洁发展机制项目活动的有效管理,维护中国的权益,保证清洁发展机制项目的有序进行,特制定本办法。第二条根据《议定书》的规定,清洁发展机制是发达国家缔约方为实现其部分温室气体减排义务与发展中国家缔约方进行项目合作的机制,其目的是协助发展中国家缔约方实现可持续发展和促进《公约》最终目标的实现,并协助发达国家缔约方实现其量化限制和减少温室气体排放的承…     

坎昆世界气候大会

坎昆世界气候大会,全称《联合国气候变化框架公约》第16次缔约方会议暨《京都议定书》第6次缔约方会议,于2010年11月29日～12月10日在墨西哥海滨城市坎昆举行,190多个国家、超1万人参加本次会议。会议目的是在《京都议定书》     

Global energy security and the implications for the EU

The following article will analyse the global and geopolitical dimensions of the future international energy security and its implications for Europe and the EU-27. In this context, I will discuss to which extent the EU's newly proclaimed “Energy Action Plan” of the EU Spring summit of 2007 and its declared common energy (foreign) policy are a sufficient strategy to cope with the new global and geopolitical challenges. The article concludes the following: (1) The interlinkage between globally designed traditional energy security concepts – that rely just on economic factors and “market-strategies” – and domestic as well as regional political stability demands new thinking with regard to both energy supply security and foreign and security policies. (2) Although after the Russian–Ukrainian gas conflict in January 2006, energy security has forced its way up the European energy and foreign policy agendas, the EU-27 member states have largely failed to forge a coherent European energy security and energy foreign policy strategy after their Spring summit of 2007 because its declared political solidarity has been still lacking. But the 2nd Strategic Energy Review of November 2008 has recommended new initiatives to overcome this lack by promoting concrete infrastructure and other projects for enhancing Europe's supply security and its political solidarity as part of a common energy (foreign) policy. If the EU is able to implement the March 2007 and November 2008 decisions, the EU oil and gas demand will drastically reduce and freeze at current levels. In this case, Putin's energy policies by using Russia's energy resources and pipeline monopolies as a political instrument to enforce its economic and geopolitical interests will be proved as self-defeating in Russia's long-term strategic interests. It will reduce Gazprom's gas exports to a much smaller EU gas market than originally forecasted as the result of a deliberate EU policy of decreasing its overall gas demand and by diversifying its gas imports.     

Analysis of renewable energy progress in the western Balkan countries: Bosnia–Herzegovina and Serbia

Within the framework of achieving the European environmental targets towards climate change mitigation, as well as decreasing the fossil fuel dependence and its negative effects on global warming, renewable energy sources (RES) promotion has become a major issue of concern in most European Union (EU) countries. In the above context, most EU countries have endorsed initiatives to foster RES implementation development and inclusion in the energy mix, aiming to endeavor and further impel the benefits deriving from RES and harmonize to the EU Directive or Kyoto Protocol. Nevertheless, only few sporadic efforts have been examining countries and compare the requirements for promoting RES implementation that lack specific RES obligations or a framework set by the Kyoto Protocol or the EU Directive, and particular Balkans countries with great RES potential, such as BiH and Serbia. The main objective of this paper is to analyze the conditions and modalities for RES progress within the economic, political and institutional dimension, in these two neighboring countries located in the vicinity of EU Member States (MS), which appear to have a similar historical, political and economical background and an extensive RES potential. The analysis indicated that RES development in BiH seems to be a slow process, its institutional framework is partly established and further strengthening is required. In Serbia, the institutional framework is efficiently established, are in the process of developing new legislation to facilitate renewable energy development.     

Electric energy restructuring in the European Union: Integration,subsidiarity and the challenge of harmonization

In 1996, the European Union (EU) instituted Directive 96/92/EC that aims to establish a competitive, secure and transparent EU-wide internal electric energy market. The process of electricity market restructuring in the EU is being guided primarily by the principle of subsidiarity. As an organizational concept, the principle of subsidiarity allows Member States to establish their own implementation strategies and methods as a means of achieving the EU-mandated goal of electric energy restructuring. Historically, the structure of the electric energy industry in place among the Member States exhibited widely disparate organizational and functional characteristics with regard to ownership, control and regulation. Under these varied and contrasting political and economic conditions, the goal of a EU-wide harmonized electric energy market becomes very challenging. In this paper, I describe the policy mechanisms and the market conditions mandated by the EU directive aimed at liberalizing the electric energy market. I then assess the role of political culture, historical resource endowment and geographical conditions in the utility restructuring strategies of some key Member States and its effects on the overall goals of a harmonized internal electric energy market. Finally, I argue that European electric energy restructuring must be understood within the context of the political and economic milieu that spawned the individual Member States’ electric energy industry.     

Energy supply security and geopolitics: A European perspective

The security of energy supply to the EU is examined in the context of two storylines. Markets and Institutions exemplifies an economically and politically integrated, multilateral world with effective institutions and markets. Regions and Empires involves a world broken up in rival political and economic blocks, competing for resources and markets via political, economic and military power. It is shown that these storylines have a significant impact on the development of the energy market, on the way in which energy supply may be secured and on the effect and applicability of the several types of instruments available. The current EU is geared towards enlargement and a deepening of economic integration, based on the tenets of the post-1945 multilateral world system. The present world tends towards Regions and Empires and suggests that the EU may have to reorient its energy security policy. Energy policy must become an integral part of EU external trade and foreign relations and security policy. The EU should develop its own strategy, actively investing in dialogues with producer countries in the Persian Gulf and Africa and with Russia. Sustainable prosperity and governance in these regions will support EU energy security.     

The unbundling regime for electricity utilities in the EU: A case of legislative and regulatory capture?

Theory and empirics suggest that by curbing competition, incumbent electricity companies which used to be, and here are referred to as, Vertically Integrated Utilities (VIUs), can increase their profitability through combined ownership of generation and transmission and/or distribution networks. Because curbing competition is generally believed to be welfare-reducing, EU law requires unbundling (separation) of the VIU networks. However, the EU allows its member states the choice between incomplete (legal) and complete (ownership) unbundling. There is tantalizing anecdotal evidence that VIUs have tried to influence this choice through questionable means of persuasion. Such means of persuasion should be more readily available in countries with a more corrupted political culture. This paper shows that among the old EU member states, countries which are perceived as more corrupt are indeed more likely to apply weaker forms of unbundling. Somewhat surprisingly, we do not obtain a similar finding for the EU member states that acceded in 2004. We provide a conjecture for this observation.     

The interdependence of European–Russian energy relations

The aim of this article is to explore this dynamic interdependent relationship between Russia and Europe in the field of energy. Based on the concept of interdependence and perspectives on the political aspects of trade relations we discuss how Russia can exercise power based on its energy resources and how the EU can compensate for its lack of power in the energy game with other trade related capabilities. In particular we explore the implications of the lack of a full-fledged EU foreign energy policy towards Russia, with the somewhat counter-intuitive conclusion that the EU countries, on average, not necessarily are better off with a common foreign energy policy.     

Overcoming problems in Turkey's renewable energy policy: How can EU contribute?

Fossil fuels cover most of the energy demand in the world, and this creates significant social, economic and environmental problems. Many countries have taken measures to increase the share of renewable energy sources (RES), especially in electricity generation, and the review of literature shows that the success of a country in RES diffusion depends on a comprehensive renewable energy policy which combines political commitment with stable and long-term support measures that stimulate technological innovation. As the largest economy in the world, EU has also taken steps to increase RES usage in electricity generation in member states. Similar to other developing countries, Turkey is learning lessons from EU experiences regarding RES policies, and Turkey is also reforming its legal framework in line with acquis communautaire as a candidate country. As a result, EU has a multiway impact on Turkey's renewable energy policy. An overview of Turkey's renewable energy policy showed that EU has significantly contributed to Turkey in shaping its renewable energy policy, and Turkey should increase cooperation with EU in order to utilize its renewable energy potential.     

The recent European biofuel debate as a case study in the politics of renewable energy

This study outlines a number of issues of a political nature, associated with the implementation of renewables, with the primary emphasis on the recent European push for the production of liquid biofuels. In recent years biofuels have been gaining increasing attention as a potential alternative to conventional automotive fuels. This potential has recently become an issue in the European Union (EU) with surplus agricultural land being considered for the production of energy crops. In this paper political issues at stake in the promotion of biofuel crops in the EU are examined. A critical analysis is made of the environmental claims put forward in defence of the promotion of these fuel crops and comparisons made with alternate woody biomass fuels. Contrasts are drawn between this case study and other examples of the implementation of renewables including the development of PV in the US and wind power in the UK. Conclusions are made regarding the impact of the issues thrown up on the future development of renewables.     

Deconstructing the “energy weapon”: Russia's threat to Europe as case study

As the likelihood increases that Russia will dominate the European Union's (EU) energy supply, questions have emerged as to whether Russia would use the energy weapon to influence EU member policies and extract political concessions. Countervailing voices argue that Russia would be restricted by interdependence and market forces. As of yet, no one has analyzed the assumptions underlying the energy weapon thesis. Moreover, many scholars examining EU–Russian energy relations rely on non-Russian data. This article seeks to fill several informational and theoretical gaps by including Russian sources and first-hand data and by systematically analyzing the conditions that must obtain before an energy supplier can successfully convert its energy resources into political power. The resulting model can be utilized to analyze the capacity of a supplier to use the energy weapon—whether it be Russia, Iran, Venezuela or any other energy heavyweight—and to assess whether the deployment was successful. Five purported cases of Russian manipulation are analyzed in this article and the findings indicate that, more often than not, Russia failed to achieve political concessions. Looking to the future, the plausibility of Russia using the energy weapon to exploit Europe's dependence, particularly on gas, is also examined.     

The potential role of renewable energy in Moldova

The European Union (EU) is developing an increasingly close relationship with Moldova, going beyond cooperation, to gradual economic integration and a deepening of political cooperation. This fact indicates that eventually the adoption of EU legislation in the energy sector is a necessity. Therefore, the provision of a clear picture of the country’s renewable energy potential is considered essential, bearing in mind the new EU Renewable Energy Directive, which sets a mandatory target of 20% of renewable energy sources by 2020 for each member state. The aim of this paper is to discuss the perspective of renewable energy in Moldova taking into account the current energy framework and to analyze, whether it is suitable to adopt similar methodologies and policy frameworks applied in other EU countries.