风能发电机组结构件的失效分析与预防(续完) 第3讲轴承的失效分析与预防

轴承在风能发电机组上具有广泛的应用。对滚动轴承的结构、类型、失效形式及其失效原因做了归纳与总结,对其最常出现的疲劳磨损失效形式及机理进行了较为深入的分析与讨论。用综合检测结果和实际应用效果辩证地论述了残余奥氏体、加工精度、材料的冶金质量以及残余应力等对轴承实际使用寿命的影响。对风电机组上轴承的应用和失效特点做了介绍,以实际案例展示了风电机组上轴承的另一种比较特殊的失效形式即氢脆或氢脆疲劳,并对其产生原因做了分析与探讨。最后提出了风电机组上轴承失效的预防措施。     

滚动轴承的失效分析

概述了滚动轴承失效分析的基本概念及意义;着重论述了失效的基本模式、影响轴承失效的因素、轴承失效分析的工作思路及方法;对轴承失效预测预防的前景也做了一些探讨.     

磨削加工对滚动轴承套圈工作表面影响与措施

本文主要分析磨削加工对滚动轴承工作表面影响,磨削变质层形成的机理,分类及减少或消除滚道表面变质层的措施,以确保轴承加工质量。     

高速高温轴承综合性能实验器的研制

工作在高速、高温等极苛刻条件下的滚动轴承的寿命、可靠性及失效形式十分复杂,很难得到准确的理论分析结果.本文研制了高速高温轴承综合性能实验器.该实验器模拟轴承的载荷、转速、温度、润滑等工况条件,测试轴承的综合动态性能,为轴承性能分析提供准确的实验数据.并且对滚动轴承的综合性能进行了测试.     

高速滚动轴承力学特性建模与损伤机理分析

滚动轴承广泛应用于航空发动机转子、高速数控机床主轴、高速列车轮对等高速旋转机械系统中,其力学特性和运行状态对整个转子系统的精度、可靠性及寿命等具有重要的影响。当转子-轴承系统在高速旋转时,所产生的离心惯性力和陀螺力矩,使轴承负荷增加,高速旋转的轴承内圈还将发生径向离心膨胀变形;另外,随着运行时间的增长,工作温度将升高,转子、轴承等部件会发生热变形。在离心惯性力和工作温升的综合作用下,轴承结构元件的几何位置关系会发生改变,从而改变轴承的刚度、应力、应变等动态特性。本文考虑了旋转内圈离心膨胀和热膨胀变形对轴承内部几何位移的影响,对Jones提出的轴承模型进行改进,建立了一种高速滚动轴承力学模型,可以预测滚动体与内圈、外圈之间的接触角、接触变形以及接触载荷等参数,并计算轴承刚度。在该轴承力学模型的基础上,研究了静载荷、动态载荷及高转速等工况下滚动轴承内部接触载荷、接触位置的变化规律,并基于材料疲劳失效理论对轴承的损伤机理和早期损伤部位进行了分析,为高速滚动轴承的损伤识别和故障诊断提供理论依据。     

复合材料滚动轴承的疲劳试验研究

通过对复合材料滚动轴承的疲劳试验,研究了短纤维注射成型工艺研制的玻纤／尼龙６６滚动轴承的疲劳寿命和失效形式,为复合材料滚动轴承的设施应用有价值的参考。     

电磁轴承失效后转子在坠落过程中的动力学特性

用有限元法建立了由滚动轴承组成的备用轴承-电磁轴承-转子系统在电磁轴承失效前后的动力学方程,分析了电磁轴承失效后转子在坠落过程中的动力特性,讨论了备用轴承的支撑阻尼对转子在坠落过程中动力特性的影响.     

钻井泵主轴承螺栓断裂分析

对主轴承螺栓在钻井泵上具体安装配合情况进行了调查，在此基础上，分析计算了主轴承螺栓在钻井泵工作时的受力情况，并通过金相显微镜、扫描电镜等手段对钻井泵主轴承螺栓断裂失效进行了分析。结果表明，该主轴承螺栓受拉－拉和弯曲双重疲劳，且主要在弯曲疲劳的作用下，于主轴承螺栓的应力集中处－螺纹根部，促使疲劳裂纹的产生和扩展，最终导致螺栓的疲劳断裂。为防止这类失效提出了建议。     

智能轴承用薄膜传感器

滚动轴承是机械工业的基础元件，波及机械工业各个领域。普通的轴承承受着载荷的实时工作状态很难精确测定。基于微机电的薄膜传感器智能轴承技术，能实现轴承的实时在线自诊断，防止轴承失效及其引起的机器失效。本文介绍了基于微机电薄膜传感器的智能轴承的结构及组成，着重探讨了应用于智能轴承的薄膜传感器的特点、种类、安装形式，并指出智能轴承用薄膜传感器制备的关键技术问题。     

含水工况下磷化对轴承疲劳寿命的影响

针对滚动轴承在潮湿环境中受水污染影响,疲劳寿命降低的现象,本文从表面处理方向出发对滚子实施磷化处理,通过疲劳寿命试验研究在含水工况磷化处理对轴承接触疲劳寿命的影响,分析磷化对滚动轴承含水工况下接触疲劳寿命影响机理。     

Towards efficient spall generation simulation in rolling element bearing

Rolling element bearing prognosis is the process of forecasting the remaining operational life, future condition or probability of failure of the bearing. While operational, bearings are subjected to rolling contact fatigue (RCF), and, as a result, a spall is generated on the raceway of the bearing. Complete understanding of the fatigue process is critical for predictive modelling to estimate bearing remaining useful life, which allows improved scheduling of maintenance actions. This work presents an RCF model that was implemented using abaqus finite element software. The RCF model is based on a damage mechanics approach that relates the accumulated microscopic failure mechanisms to a damage state variable and includes representation of material grain structure by a Poisson–Voronoi tessellation. Different microstructures, with a variety of material properties and grain topologies, were constructed for simulation purposes. The geometry of the simulated spalls and the Weibull slopes of the fatigue lives are in good agreement with published theoretical and experimental data. It can be concluded that the assumptions and the simplifications of the current, convenient to use, RCF model yield a sufficiently accurate tool on the basis of previous publications and experimental data.     

Contact Fatigue Failure of a Tapered Roller Bearing Used in a Lorry Wheel

Tapered roller bearings, which are also known as angular-contact bearing, are suitable for supporting radial and axial loads. The more frequent types of defects in such bearings are caused by contact fatigue in these machine components, and this examination focuses on a contact fatigue failure in a tapered rolling bearing. The examination included visual inspection, microscopic analysis (optical and scanning electron microscope), and microhardness measurements. These measurements were conducted to help understand the failure mechanisms. Based on the results of visual examination and microstructure and fracture surface analysis, it was determined that the tapered roller bearing failed by contact fatigue that was caused by overloading of the bearing.     

Statistical analysis on rolling contact fatigue in railroad axle bearing steel

High‐strength steels are widely used in high‐performance bearings utilized in most mechanical systems. However, there has been little statistical analysis regarding the fatigue failure behaviour of the material, where surface peeling resulted from contact fatigue during rolling is a significant life‐limiting mechanism. In this study, we examine the statistical behaviour of surface‐crack nucleation, propagation, and peeling in a high‐speed train axle bearing made of GCr15 steel by using a laboratory rolling‐contact equipment. We reveal that cyclic rolling‐contact leads to the formation of a hardness gradient in the outer ring of the bearing. The gradient layer is of several millimetres. The peeling rate could be as high as 28 μm per million cycles when the contact pressure is close to that applied in real service. Peeling‐induced cracking is dominantly transgranular. The incipient angle is about 23.2°, and its depth could be hundreds of micrometres. The findings reported here could be employed to assess the lifetime of bearings made of GCr15 steel and possible other engineering metals.     

Rolling contact fatigue behavior of sintered and hardened steels

Powder-metal-processed bearings and gears are finding increasing application because of their economical and technical advantages. The residual pores from the sintering operatives act as lubricant pockets and dampen sound and vibration. However, porosity also decreases the mechanical strength and reduces the life of components fabricated by powder processing relative to similar wrought components. The rolling contact fatigue behavior of sintered and heat treated steel rollers was investigated using a fatigue test machine designed and fabricated for that purpose. The powder-metal-processed and the wrought steel rollers that were tested had similar composition and hardness and were mated against wrought steel rollers of high hardness. The contact stress versus number of cycles to failure data showed that the wrought steel had a very high endurance limit under rolling contact fatigue compared to the sintered steels investigated. Rolling contact fatigue behavior was found to depend on the porosity present in the material. Large surface peeling failures and pitting type fatigue failures were observed in the sintered and hardened steels, while only pitting type failures were observed in the wrought steels     

Investigations on tailored forming components as tribologically loaded machine elements

To fulfil future trends of machine elements, the surface and part properties need to be enhanced. To advance machine elements, the application of tailored forming technology offers new possibilities. With this approach, it is possible to design and manufacture machine elements consisting of two or more different metallic materials with improved performance and functionality specially adapted to their respective application. The process chain starts with the joining of different materials to multi-metal work pieces, which are subsequently formed close to the final contour. The properties of the joining zone can be improved by thermal and mechanical treatment accompanying the forming process.Exemplary multi-metal components with a boundary zone subjected to rolling contact fatigue were investigated. Thus, an axial bearing, a shaft with an integrated raceway, a bearing bushing/angular contact ball bearing and a bevel gear wheel were in the focus of this research. Here, the highly stressed areas are reinforced with a higher strength material, while the rest of the part consists of a lower grade material. In case of the shaft, the raceway acts like the inner ring of a bearing and should resist rolling contact fatigue and mechanical wear. The process route was set up and simulations regarding the fatigue life in dependence of the layer thickness of the material acting as raceway were performed. First fatigue tests were executed to prove the reliability of the described concept.     

Possibilities and extension of XRD material response analysis in failure research for the advanced evaluation of the damage level of Hertzian loaded components

Due to clearly distinguishable damage symptoms, it is differentiated between the surface and sub‐surface failure mode of rolling bearings. Material states red out by X‐ray diffraction (XRD) residual stress measurements point to a variety of loading conditions especially at raceway surfaces that are associated with several competing failure mechanisms. The corresponding lifetime reduction can range from the lower fatigue strength region to material ratcheting in extreme cases. Relevant position of the microstructural changes and nature of the failure mechanisms are characterized. The time alteration of the XRD material parameters measured at or near the surface and at the depth of the maximum equivalent stress correlates, in a different manner, with the statistical parameter of the 10 % bearing life. Both failure modes are illustrated by concrete examples. Contaminated lubricant and boundary lubrication, which represent practically important surface‐induced failures, are discussed in more detail. Gray staining, i.e. shallow pitting, often occurs without distinct indication of global material aging by means of XRD characteristics. Here, scanning electron microscopy observations and electron microprobe analyses point to corrosion fatigue as acting surface failure mechanism. The interaction between material and lubricant under complex loading regimes particularly of mixed friction and corrosion opens further failure research areas in the field of tribology.     

基于EEMD的混合陶瓷球轴承故障双冲击特征提取

疲劳剥落是导致滚动轴承失效的主要原因,当滚道出现剥落故障时滚动体在进入和退出剥落区时的加速度振动信号表现出不同特征：进入故障区时产生以较低频率成分为主的阶跃响应;退出剥落区则引起频带较宽的脉冲响应。有效分离这两类信号特征,对实现对混合陶瓷球轴承剥落区长度的测量有重要意义。本文提出了一种基于总体经验模态分解（EEMD)的混合陶瓷球轴承剥落故障双冲击特征提取方法,该方法首先用AR模型对原始振动信号进行预白化处理,然后利用EEMD对白化后的振动信号进行去噪,并结合Hilbert包络提取算法实现对剥落故障混合陶瓷球轴承振动信号双冲击特征的有效分离提取。仿真及试验研究表明该方法能够有效地分离出混合陶瓷球轴承故障双冲击特征。     

脱氢压缩机组轴瓦失效分析

在对脱氢用离心压缩机组解体大修时发现其滑动轴承瓦面合金大面积脱落。采用材料性能测试、扫描电镜观察、金相检验和氢含量测定等方法对该轴瓦进行失效分析并进行流体动压润滑理论计算。结果表明：该型轴瓦失效的主要原因为氢气渗入材料。同时,氢鼓泡和氢致开裂的存在降低了轴瓦上巴氏合金与基体的结合强度及合金的疲劳强度,进而引起轴瓦的疲劳失效。另外,轴瓦的局部过热和转子不对中加速了轴瓦失效。     

Characterization of machined surface quality and near-surface microstructure of a high speed thrust angular contact ball bearing

Bearings are one of the most important components in modern industry.Rolling contact fatigue(RCF)initiating from surface and subsurface is the major failure mode.In this paper,a typical high speed thrust angular contact ball bearing was selected,and the machined surface quality and near-surface microstruc-ture of the race-way and rolling ball were systematically characterized by using of a probe surface profiler,white light interferometer,optical microscopy(OM),scanning electron microscopy(SEM),elec-tron backscatter diffraction(EBSD)and transmission electron microscopy(TEM)combined with focused ion beam(FIB).Two kinds of precursor,probably resulting in pitting or spalling during the following rolling contact,were detected.One is the defects on the surface of either the race-way or the rolling ball,such as heavy machining marks,scratches and slag-hole.The other is nano-crystalline layer due to machining,in the outermost layer around the surface of race-way.The results may well lay foundation for our further research on RCF with the real part of such typical rolling bearings.