Transient and steady state crack growth kinetics for stress corrosion cracking of a cold worked 316L stainless steel in oxygenated pure water at different temperatures

The stress corrosion cracking (SCC) growth kinetics for a cold worked 316L stainless steel was continuously monitored in high purity water at different temperatures and dissolved oxygen (DO) levels under a K (or K_max) of 30 MPa m^0.5. The total SCC test time was more than 8000 h to make sure the steady state crack growth rate under each test condition could be reached. Crack growth rate (CGR) increases with increasing temperature in the range 110-288 °C. A typical intergranular-cracking mode is identified. Depending on the previous test condition, especially the temperature, three kinds of crack growth kinetics, i.e., increasing with testing time then becoming steady, being constant during the whole period, or decreasing with test time then becoming steady, are identified and discussed. Time-dependent and testing history-dependent crack growth modes were confirmed in two series of tests in 2 ppm DO and 7.5 ppm DO pure water. The apparent activation energies are calculated and compared with other data in different environments under different applied loading levels for understanding the cracking mechanism.     

Effects of loading mode and water chemistry on stress corrosion crack growth behavior of 316L HAZ and weld metal materials in high temperature pure water

The stress corrosion cracking (SCC) growth rates of 316L weld heat-affected zone (HAZ) and weld metal materials in high temperature pure water at 288 °C were measured using contoured double cantilever beam (CDCB) specimens and an alternating current potential drop (ACPD) in situ crack-length monitoring system. The effects of loading mode and dissolved oxygen and hydrogen on crack growth rate (CGR) were experimentally quantified. Typical intergranular SCC was found in the HAZ specimen and interdendritic SCC was identified in the weld metal specimen. The HAZ specimen and the weld metal specimen showed quite a similar response to the applied loading modes and the water chemistry, even though their absolute CGR values were different. The crack growth rates under trapezoidal loading were moderately higher than those under constant loading by several tenths percent. Switching the water chemistry from the oxygen-bearing water to the hydrogen-bearing water drastically decreased the electrochemical potential and the crack growth rate, and vice versa. A time-lag period for crack growth was observed after switching the water chemistry back to the oxygen-bearing water, where the crack growth rate was low even the dissolved oxygen concentration and the electrochemical potential had become high. Strain hardening and the resultant uneven distribution of deformation contribute to the enhanced intergranular SCC growth behavior in the HAZ area. The crack growth kinetics is analyzed based on the deformation/oxidation interaction at the crack tip, considering the importance of the electric-charge transfer, mass transport kinetics and the crack tip strain rate.     

Effects of water chemistry and loading conditions on stress corrosion cracking of cold-rolled 316NG stainless steel in high temperature water

The effects of electrode potential, stress intensity factor and loading history on stress corrosion cracking growth of a cold-rolled 316NG stainless steel in 288 °C pure water were investigated. Crack branching and intergranular stress corrosion cracking along random grain boundaries were observed by electron-back scattering diffraction. A strong dependence of crack growth rate on stress intensity factor is observed. A single-cycle overloading produced a retarded transient cracking growth period. The mild inhibiting effect of decreasing electrode potential on crack growth of cold-rolled 316NG SS is analyzed based on the interaction between crack tip mechanics and crack tip oxidation kinetics.     

Role of water chemistry and microstructure in stress corrosion cracking in the fusion boundary region of an Alloy 182-A533B low alloy steel dissimilar weld joint in high temperature water

Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) in the fusion boundary (FB) region of an Alloy 182-low alloy steel (LAS) dissimilar weld joint in 288 °C water was investigated by experiments and finite element simulation. Creviced bent beam and crack growth rate (CGR) experiments showed that, while the FB was a barrier to SCC growth, further crack growth into LAS was activated by a combined effect of sulfate and dissolved oxygen in water. Finite element simulation suggested that a positive gradient of hardness as the crack approached to the FB in dilution zone caused decreased CGR. Role of microstructure and water chemistry in SCC was discussed.     

Impact of temperature excursion on stress corrosion cracking of stainless steels in chloride solution

The impact of a temperature excursion on the subsequent stress corrosion crack growth at the normal operating temperature has been investigated for 321 stainless steel (UNS32100) and 316L stainless steel (UNS31603) using precracked compact tension specimens. Although the data are preliminary the indication is that once crack growth has initiated in 321 SS at the elevated temperature, 130 °C in this study, the crack growth may be sustained at the lower temperature (40 °C), at least over the exposure time of about 700 h. However, the growth rate of 316L SS at the lower temperature was significantly lower than for 321 SS and tended to zero after 2000 h. For the 316 SS a temperature transient should not impact on structural integrity, provided it is short in duration.     

The effect of prior deformation on stress corrosion cracking growth rates of Alloy 600 materials in a simulated pressurized water reactor primary water

The effect of prior deformation on stress corrosion cracking (SCC) growth rates of Alloy 600 materials in a simulated pressurized water reactor primary water environment is studied. The prior deformation was introduced by welding procedure or by cold working. Values of Vickers hardness in the Alloy 600 weld heat-affected zone (HAZ) and in the cold worked (CW) Alloy 600 materials are higher than that in the base metal. The significantly hardened area in the HAZ is within a distance of about 2-3 mm away from the fusion line. Electron backscatter diffraction (EPSD) results show significant amounts of plastic strain in the Alloy 600 HAZ and in the cold worked Alloy 600 materials. Stress corrosion cracking growth rate tests were performed in a simulated pressurized water reactor primary water environment. Extensive intergranular stress corrosion cracking (IGSCC) was found in the Alloy 600 HAZ, 8% and 20% CW Alloy 600 specimens. The crack growth rate in the Alloy 600 HAZ is close to that in the 8% CW base metal, which is significantly lower than that in the 20% CW base metal, but much higher than that in the as-received base metal. Mixed intergranular and transgranular SCC was found in the 40% CW Alloy 600 specimen. The crack growth rate in the 40% CW Alloy 600 was lower than that in the 20% CW Alloy 600. The effect of hardening on crack growth rate can be related to the crack tip mechanics, the sub-microstructure (or subdivision of grain) after cross-rolling, and their interactions with the oxidation kinetics.     

Effect of austenite instability on the hydrogen-enhanced crack growth of austenitic stainless steels

Fatigue crack growth tests were performed to assess the fatigue behavior of AISI 316L and 254 SMO stainless steels (SSs) in air and gaseous hydrogen. 254 SMO SS generally exhibited a greater resistance to fatigue crack growth than 316L. Sensitization treatment had only a marginal effect on the fatigue crack growth behavior of both alloys in air. Moreover, 316L SS exhibited significant hydrogen-enhanced crack growth but 254 SMO, even sensitized 254 SMO specimens, did not. A thin layer of strain-induced martensite was formed on the fatigue-fractured surface of the 316L SS, and its content increased when raising the stress ratio. The thin martensite layer was responsible for the hydrogen-enhanced fatigue crack growth of the 316L SS. By contrast, the extremely stable austenite was responsible for the low susceptibility of 254 SMO SS to hydrogen-accelerated crack growth. The trapping of hydrogen at the grain boundaries and the transformed martensite in the sensitized 316L specimens led to increased fatigue crack growth rates and intergranular fracture of the material.     

Predicting the mechanisms and crack growth rates of pipelines undergoing stress corrosion cracking at high pH

A fundamentally based mathematical model was developed with the goal to predict, as a first step, the crack growth rate (CGR) of high pH stress corrosion cracking (SCC) of buried steel pipelines. Two methods were used to predict CGRs and for both methods the model has included the film rupture and repassivation mechanism. The two methods are distinguished by the expression used to determine the active anodic current density at the crack tip. In the first method, this current density is expressed by the anodic polarization curve with a large peak current density and the prediction tends to yield a larger CGR and a lower pH at the crack tip. By contrast, when the Butler–Volmer equation is used to express the crack tip anodic current density, with a predicted low CGR the chemistry at the tip does not appear to have any significant change due to the high buffer of the solution.The predicted mechanism responsible for the steady-state crack growth is shown to be the balance between the increasing stress intensity factor as the crack grows, which tends to increase the crack tip strain rate and thus the CGR, and the change of the crack tip condition, which, for large CGRs, is the significant shift in the more negative direction of the crack tip potential, and for low CGRs, the increase of ferrous ion concentration, and either tends to decrease CGR.Limitations currently existing in the model and proposal for further development of the model are discussed.     

Characterization and perspective of stress corrosion cracking of austenitic stainless steels (type 304 and type 316) in acid solutions using constant load method

The stress corrosion cracking (SCC) of the commercial austenitic stainless steels, type 304 and type 316 has been extensively investigated as functions of applied stress, sensitizing temperature, sensitizing time and the environmental factors such as pH, anion concentration, anion species (chloride ions and sulfate ions), test temperature, applied potential and inhibitor concentrations of chromate and molybdate by using a constant load method. We have found that the steady state elongation rate obtained from corrosion elongation curve becomes a relevant parameter for predicting time to failure and also for criterion on assessment of whether SCC takes place or not. The value of t_ss/t_f is also found to become an indicator for assessment of whether SCC takes place or not. Furthermore, from the results obtained, it is deduced that a unified SCC mechanism is qualitatively proposed to explain both of transgranular SCC (TGSCC) and intergranular SCC (IGSCC), where the unified SCC mechanism is basically based on a film rupture- formation event at crack tips.     

Effect of temperature on the stress corrosion cracking of zircaloy-4 in iodine alcoholic solutions

Zircaloy-4 is susceptible to stress corrosion cracking (SCC) in solutions of iodine dissolved in different alcohols (methanol, ethanol, 1-propanol, 1-butanol, 1-pentanol and 1-octanol). The crack propagation rate is known to decrease as the solvent molecular weight increases, as a consequence of steric hindrance. However, the mechanism that operates during SCC is still unknown. In the present work the effect of temperature on SCC susceptibility was evaluated in 1-butanol and 1-pentanol iodine containing solutions. The dependence of the crack growth rate with temperature follows an Arrhenius law, and the activation energy obtained from experimental data is consistent with a process controlled by volume diffusion of the active species (the iodine-alcohol complex) to the crack tip.     

Evaluation of stress corrosion cracking phenomenon in an AISI type 316LN stainless steel using acoustic emission technique

This paper deals with the analysis of the acoustic emission (AE) signals to determine the micro-process during stress corrosion cracking (SCC) of AISI type 316LN stainless steel that cause the AE, and thus the mechanism of the SCC process. AE with amplitudes ranging from 27.6 to 46.5 dB with different counts, energy and rise times occurred during SCC of type 316LN stainless steel in 45% MgCl₂ at 413 K. The analysis of the AE signals in conjunction with fractography indicated that a surge in the AE counts and energy indicated initiation of SCC. AE was found to be continuous prior to the initiation. The time gap between AE events increased during initiation. AE events occurred in bursts during crack growth. Plastic deformation ahead of the crack tip was determined to be the major source of AE during propagation of SCC in type 316LN stainless steel. The cracking was found to initiate and propagate in the transgranular mode.     

IGSCC crack growth in simulated BWR environment – Effect of nitrogen content in non-sensitised and warm rolled austenitic stainless steel

Effect of nitrogen level in strain hardened stainless steel (SS) on crack growth rate (CGR) in simulated boiling water reactor conditions has been the focus of this study. Type 304 LN stainless steel has been used in a warm rolled condition containing two different levels of nitrogen. Clear intergranular (IG) fracture was observed in both the stainless steels. The CGR increased 3 times in the stainless steel with higher level of nitrogen at all levels of dissolved oxygen and this was related to the increase in yield strength due to rolling and dynamic strain aging (DSA).     

Hydrogen-assisted fatigue crack growth of AISI 316L stainless steel weld

The fatigue crack growth behaviors of AISI 316L stainless steel (SS) welds in air and gaseous hydrogen were evaluated, and further compared with the base plate. In air, the fatigue crack growth rate (FCGR) of the weld after heat-treatment at 1050 ^oC/1 h was similar to that of the base metal. Furthermore, all specimens became susceptible to hydrogen-accelerated crack growth. Mainly quasi-cleavage fracture related with the strain-induced martensite accounted for the accelerated crack growth in hydrogen. A smaller amount of martensite in the weld was responsible for the decreased susceptibility to hydrogen-enhanced fatigue crack growth relative to the base metal.     

Effect of metallurgical variables on the stress corrosion crack growth behaviour of AISI type 316LN stainless steel

Mill-annealed AISI type 316LN stainless steels, received from two different sources (one indigenous (SS-2) and the other foreign (SS-1)), were tested for stress corrosion cracking (SCC) resistance in a boiling acidified environment of NaCl. SCC results indicated a remarkably lower value of plateau crack growth rate (PCGR) and higher values of K_ISCC and J_ISCC for SS-2, which was attributed to the lower effective grain boundary energy resulting from a higher amount of copper in it. Cold working reduced K_ISCC and PCGR; while thermal aging and welding decreased K_ISCC and increased PCGR vis-à-vis the annealed material.     

316Ti在含氯离子300℃高温水中的应力腐蚀开裂

采用慢应变速率拉伸(SSRT)试验方法研究了316Ti在300℃高温水中的应力腐蚀开裂(SCC)行为。结果表明,在空气饱和条件下,试样的断裂时间、延伸率以及断裂能的值随着Cl^-浓度的增大显著降低,应力腐蚀敏感指数随着Cl^-浓度的增大则显著递增,二者具有一定相关性。316Ti不锈钢在300℃空气饱和水中发生SCC的临界Cl^-质量浓度为5 mg/L,只有在Cl^-质量浓度高于或等于5 mg/L,试样才发生穿晶型和部分沿晶混合型SCC。SCC裂纹多萌生于滑移台阶或蚀坑,也可能萌生于接近表面的铁素体相处;裂纹在向基体扩展过程中,铁素体相的存在阻碍了其扩展过程,从而提高了316Ti的抗SCC能力。氧在SCC裂纹萌生和扩展过程中都起着非常重要的作用。     

Steric hindrance as a rate controlling step in stress corrosion cracking

The effect of steric hindrance in the stress corrosion cracking (SCC) of Ag-15Pd (a/o) in AgI forming solutions was studied at room temperature. The solutions used were 1 M KI at a potential higher than that of AgI formation, and iodine dissolved in different n-alcohols. It was found that Ag-15Pd (a/o) is susceptible to intergranular stress corrosion cracking in those solutions. The SCC susceptibility measured as percentage of elongation to rupture and crack propagation rate is related to the size of the active species. While in KI aqueous solutions, as well as in iodine saturated benzene or iodine saturated toluene, the rate controlling step (RCS) was the reaction at the tip of the crack, in alcoholic-iodine solutions, the diffusion rate of the iodine containing molecules became the RCS.     

A comparison of hydrogen embrittlement susceptibility of two austenitic stainless steel welds

Slow displacement rate tensile tests were carried out to assess the effect of hydrogen embrittlement on notched tensile strength (NTS) and fracture characteristics of AISI 316L and 254 SMO stainless steel (SS) plates and welds. 254 SMO generally exhibited a better resistance to hydrogen embrittlement than 316L. The strain-induced transformation of austenite to martensite in the 316L SS was responsible for the high hydrogen embrittlement susceptibility of the alloy and weld. Sensitized 254 SMO (i.e., heat-treated at 1000 °C/40 min) base plate and weld comprised of dense precipitates along grain boundaries. Interfacial separation along solidified boundaries was observed with the tensile fracture of 254 SMO weld, especially the sensitized one. Dense grain boundary precipitates not only reduced the ductility but also raised the susceptibility to sulfide stress corrosion cracking of the sensitized 254 SMO plate and weld.     

Stress corrosion cracking and hydrogen embrittlement of sensitized austenitic stainless steels in boiling saturated magnesium chloride solutions

Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) and hydrogen embrittlement (HE) of the sensitized stainless steels of type 304, 310 and 316 were investigated as a function of test temperature in boiling saturated magnesium chloride (MgCl₂) solutions under a constant applied stress condition. The test temperature dependence of fracture appearance and three parameters of time to failure (t_f), steady-state elongation rate (l_ss) and transition time to time to failure ratio (t_ss/t_f) suggests that type 304 suffered SCC and HE, while type 316 suffered only HE and type 310 SCC. It was also found that the test temperature dependence of three parameters for the sensitized type 304 and 310 was almost similar to that of the solution annealed stainless steels, whereas that of type 316 showed a clear difference between sensitized and solution annealed specimens. The relationships between the logarithms of the time to failure and the steady-state elongation rate became a straight line for all stainless steels. However, its slope depended upon the fracture mode; −2.0 for SCC and −1.5 for HE. This showed that the steady-state elongation rate was the parameter for predicting the time to failure for the stainless steels in the MgCl₂ solutions. The results obtained were explained in terms of martensite transformation, hydrogen entry site, sensitization, and so on.     

Stress corrosion cracking of Cu-30% Zn alloy in Mattsson’s solutions at pH 7.0 and 10.0 using constant load method - A proposal of SCC mechanism

The stress corrosion cracking (SCC) of a commercial Cu-30% Zn alloy has been investigated as a function of applied stress in Mattsson solutions with pH 7.0 and 10.0 at 313 K by using a constant load method. It was found that the elongation behavior at pH 10.0 showed clearly the step wise fashion, while that at pH 7.0 did slightly, almost over the whole applied stress. The steady state elongation rate obtained from corrosion elongation curve became a relevant parameter for predicting time to failure. Furthermore, from the results obtained, it is deduced that a unified SCC mechanism is qualitatively proposed to explain both of transgranular SCC (TGSCC) at pH 10.0 and intergranular SCC (IGSCC) at pH 7.0, where the unified SCC mechanism is basically based on a film rupture-formation event at crack tips.     

Film rupture model for aqueous stress corrosion cracking under constant and variable stress intensity factor

A film rupture model for aqueous stress corrosion cracking is developed and used to predict kinetics of crack growth under constant and variable stress intensity factor. The model predicts that creep is necessary for sustained crack growth and creep rate limits crack velocity for constant K and dK/da loading. Contrary to recent thinking, the crack tip strain due to crack advance is viewed as a result, not a cause of crack growth. The crack tip strain gradient elevates and maintains crack tip stress as the crack propagates, which enables creep and sustained crack growth. The model provides a basis for understanding effects of positive and negative K - variation on crack growth.