Application of direct laser melting to restore damaged steel dies

Direct laser melting (DLM) technology can be applied to restore damaged steel dies. To understand the effects of DLM process parameters such as the laser power and scan rate, a series of experiments was conducted to determine the optimal operating parameters. To investigate the laser melting characteristics, the depth/height ratio, depth/width ratio and micro-hardness as a function of the laser energy density were analyzed. Fe-Cr and Fe-Ni layers were deposited on a steel die with 11.38 J/mm² of energy input. The wear-resistance and the friction coefficient of the deposited layer were investigated by a pin-on-disk test. The penetration depth decreased as the scan rate increased as a consequence of the shorter interaction time. The depth/height ratio of the deposited layer decreased with an increase in the scan rate. The depth/width ratio increased as laser power increased and the scan rate decreased. The deposition shape of the Fe-Ni powder was relatively shallow and wide compared with that of the Fe-Cr powder. The scan rate had a substantial effect upon the deposition height, with the Fe-Cr powder melting more than the Fe-Ni powder. The micro-hardness of the layer melted from the powders is higher than that of the substrate, and the hardness of the laser-surface-melted layer without any metal powder is higher compared to that of the metal-powder-melted layer. The direct laser melting process with Fe-Ni powder represents a superior method when restoring a steel die when the bead shape and hardness of the restored surface are important outcome considerations.     

Multi-material laser direct writing of aerosol jet layered polymers

We describe a novel multi-material polymer layer creation principle and deposition strategy based on aerosol jetting. In a multiple atomizer set-up, acrylates and methacrylates comprising a hardness of 25–80 ShoreD are deposited in a layer based process with a resolution range of 7.4–548.3 μm. The materials are transformed into droplets independently and enable the deposition of pure materials as well as mixed compositions. UV lasers create lateral structures with typical resolutions below 20 μm. The additive manufacturing process is experimentally verified using applications in the field of novel hardness level individualized in-ear hearing devices.     

Characterization of deposited layer fabricated by direct laser melting process

Deposition dimensions are important in the final applications of products made by direct laser melting (DLM). This investigation used a 200 W fiber laser to produce single-line beads from stainless steel 316L powder using a variety of different energy distributions. To investigate the deposited layer, deposition width, height, penetration depth, and side surface roughness were measured. In order to validate the effectiveness of the two main process parameters (laser power and scan rate), multi-layered beads were fabricated by the sequential layering of single lines. It was found that with an increase in linear energy density, the wetting angle was reduced, and the average roughness was also increased with linear energy density. An equation that predicts the deposition height for a multi-layered bead is proposed and experimentally validated in this study. For deposited layer applications, the material properties of the deposited layer, such as contact angle, interfacial contact resistance, and flexural strength are estimated. The rougher deposited layers show higher contact angle and interfacial contact resistance. The flexural strength of the DLM fabricated specimen is above 250 MPa.     

Surface roughness analysis,modelling and prediction in selective laser melting

Selective Laser Melting (SLM) is an increasingly employed additive manufacturing process for the production of medical, aerospace, and automotive parts. Despite progresses in material flexibility and mechanical performances, relatively poor surface finish still presents a major limitation in the SLM process.In this study an investigation of surface roughness and morphology is presented for Steel 316L alloy parts made by SLM. In order to characterise the actual surfaces at different sloping angles, truncheon samples have been produced and an analysis has been conducted at different scales, by surface profilometer and scanning electron microscope (SEM). The surface analysis has showed an increasing density of spare particles positioned along the step edges, as the surface sloping angle increases. When layer thickness is comparable to particle diameter, the particles stuck along step edges can fill the gaps between consecutive layers, thus affecting the actual surface roughness.Classic models for roughness prediction, based on purely geometrical consideration of the stair step profile, fail to describe the observed trend of the experimental data. A new mathematical model is developed to include the presence of particles on top surfaces, in addition to the stair step effect, for the accurate prediction of surface roughness. Results show that surface roughness predicted by this model has a good agreement with the experimentally observed roughness. The paper investigates the key contributing factors influencing surface morphology, and a theoretical model for roughness prediction that provides valuable information to improve the surface quality of SLM parts, thus minimising the need of surface finishing.     

Selective laser melting of aluminium components

Previous work has shown that the processing of aluminium alloys by selective laser melting (SLM) is difficult, with reasonable components only being produced with high laser powers (minimum 150 W) and slow laser scanning speeds. The high laser power is a significant problem as it is higher than that used in many SLM machines. Also, the combination of high power and low speed creates a large melt pool that is difficult to control, leading to balling of the melt and possible damage to the powder distribution system. Even when processing is carried out successfully, the high power and slow scan speed significantly increase build time and the manufacturing costs.This paper considers the changes that can be made to the SLM process so as to reduce the laser power required and increase the laser scanning rates, while still producing components with a high relative density. It also considers why aluminium and its alloys are much more difficult to process than stainless steels and commercially pure titanium. Two MCP Realizer machines were used to process 6061 and AlSi12 alloys, one processing at 50 W and the other 100 W laser power. Even with an optimum combination of process parameters a maximum relative density of only 89.5% was possible (achieved with 100 W). The major confounding factor for processing aluminium and its alloys was found to be oxidation due to the presence of oxygen within the build chamber. This formed thin oxide films on both the solid and molten materials. It was observed that the oxide on the top of the melt pool vaporised under the laser creating a fume of oxide particles, while melt pool stirring, probably due to Marangoni forces, tended to break the oxide at the base of the melt pool allowing fusion to the underlying tracks. However, the oxides at the sides of the melt pool remained intact creating regions of weakness and porosity, as the melt pool failed to wet the surrounding material. Therefore, if 100% dense aluminium components are to be produced by SLM, using low laser powers, methods need to be developed that can either disrupt these oxide films or avoid their formation.     

On the use of EBSD analysis to investigate the microstructure of gold samples built by selective laser melting

In the selective laser melting process, the scanning strategies have a deep impact on the final microstructures. In this paper, we point out the benefits of using EBSD techniques to characterize the scanning strategies on 18-carat gold samples. For a given scanning strategy, different microstructures and orientation can be achieved, due to the change of the thermal gradients. The results are compared with numerical simulations.     

Microstructure analysis of high density WC-Co composite prepared by one step selective laser melting

WC-Co composite, also well known as cemented carbide, is one of the most challenging materials for one step additive manufacture process, such as selective laser melting (SLM). Up until now, defect free cemented carbide has never been successfully synthesized yet using one-step SLM. In this study, the critical effect of the morphology of feedstock carbide granules on the microstructure was initially investigated for SLM processed carbides. Crack free WC-20Co cemented carbide with high density has been successfully synthesized using one-step SLM without further heat treatment. The density is significantly high for SLM processed carbides although still unsatisfactory yet compared to conventional liquid phase sintered carbides. Spherical granules are more favorable than non-spherical granules in obtaining a higher final density. The SLM process results in inhomogeneous and rapid WC grain growth, which is attributed to the non-uniform temperature distribution and varying amount of time experienced by the material in the liquid state during the SLM process.     

Observation of keyhole-mode laser melting in laser powder-bed fusion additive manufacturing

Laser powder-bed fusion additive manufacturing of metals employs high-power focused laser beams. Typically, the depth of the molten pool is controlled by conduction of heat in the underlying solid material. But, under certain conditions, the mechanism of melting can change from conduction to so-called “keyhole-mode” laser melting. In this mode, the depth of the molten pool is controlled by evaporation of the metal. Keyhole-mode laser melting results in melt pool depths that can be much deeper than observed in conduction mode. In addition, the collapse of the vapor cavity that is formed by the evaporation of the metal can result in a trail of voids in the wake of the laser beam. In this paper, the experimental observation of keyhole-mode laser melting in a laser powder-bed fusion additive manufacturing setting for 316L stainless steel is presented. The conditions required to transition from conduction controlled melting to keyhole-mode melting are identified.     

Performance of Ti6Al4V fabricated by electron beam and laser hybrid preheating and selective melting strategy

Electron beam selective melting (EBM) and selective laser melting (SLM) are regarded as significant manufacturing processes for near-net-shaped Ti6Al4V components. Generally, in the conventional EBM process, preheating is necessitated to avoid smoke caused by the charging of electrons. In the conventional SLM process, laser as an energy source without the risk of smoke can be employed to melt metal powder at low temperatures. However, because of the low absorption rate of laser, the powder bed temperature cannot reach a high level. It is difficult to obtain as-built TiAl4V with favorable comprehensive properties via conventional EBM or SLM. Hence, two types of electron beam and laser hybrid preheating (EB-LHP) combined with selective melting strategies are proposed. Using laser to preheat powder allows EBM to be performed at a low powder bed temperature (EBM-LT), whereas using an electron beam to preheat powder allows SLM to be performed at a high powder bed temperature (SLM-HT). Ti6Al4V samples are fabricated using two different manufacturing strategies (i.e., EBM-LT and SLM-HT) and two conventional processes, i.e., EBM at a high powder bed temperature (EBM-HT) and SLM at a low powder bed temperature (SLM-LT). The temperature-dependent surface quality, microstructure, density, and mechanical properties of the as-built Ti6Al4V samples are characterized and compared. Results show that EBM-LT Ti6Al4V exhibits a higher ultimate tensile strength (981±43 MPa) and a lower elongation (12.2%±2.3%) than EBM-HT Ti6Al4V owing to the presence of α' martensite. The SLM-HT Ti6Al4V possesses the highest ultimate tensile strength (1,059±62 MPa) and an elongation (14.8%±4.0%) comparable to that of the EBM-HT Ti6Al4V (16.6%±1.2%).     

Finite element analysis of melting and solidifying processes in laser rapid prototyping of metallic powders

To clarify the forming mechanism in laser rapid prototyping, the melting and solidifying processes of metallic powders are simulated by the finite element method, and the calculated amount of the solidified mass is compared with the experimental one. In the simulation, the melted part of the powders is assumed to change into a sphere due to the surface tension and a new finite element mesh is generated in the subsequent analysis. Latent heat and shrinkage due to solidification are taken into account. The thermal conductivity of the powder is measured for various densities and used in the calculation. Temperature distribution within the powders during heating and cooling is calculated to obtain the amount of the melted and solidified part of the powders. Experiments are made with Cu powders using a pulsed Nd:YAG laser. It is found that the amount of the solidified part after a pulse of laser irradiation is affected by the peak power of the laser rather than the duration of irradiation. There is an appropriate peak power of the laser in rapid prototyping of metallic powders. The calculated weights of the solidified powders by several pulses of the laser beam agree well with the experimental ones.     

Special features of laser processing of layered materials

This article deals with the problems concerning the quality of laser machining of workpieces of laminates of natural and artificial origin (mica, thermoplastics and thermosetting plastics, foil sheets, and composite materials). The basic disadvantages of the laser machining operations (contour cutting and drilling of holes) are the material’s delamination at the edges of the processed workpieces, its melting, and destruction. These disadvantages arise because the irradiation conditions and the machining modes are not optimal; the selected mechanism of the workpiece material’s damage in the applied technological patterns of operations is not suitable. Theoretical and experimental studies of the machining process of various laminates allowed us to formulate and realize high-quality machining principles. The modes and results of the precision machining of workpieces of mica, foiled fiberglass laminate, and hybrid composites are presented.     

镁合金激光熔凝处理工艺研究

采用横流CO2激光器,对镁合金进行熔凝处理,采用三因子二次回归正交组合设计计算方法进行试验,优化其工艺参数,讨论了各工艺参数对熔凝区尺寸的影响规律,分析了熔凝区组织性能之间的关系.结果表明,熔凝区晶粒得到细化,镁合金表面的性能得到明显提高.     

激光直接沉积过程中基板变形分析

RP/M是基于堆积/离散思想的先进制造技术,以同轴送粉为特征的激光直接沉积技术是RM中的典型和普遍使用的技术,其基板的变形是沉积过程中的主要缺陷,也是该技术中存在的关键工艺问题。本文观察了在不同沉积材料与基板材料组合的条件下,直薄壁试件激光直接沉积过程中基板的变形情况,分析了沉积过程中基板的热力学特征;测量了沉积过程中基板温度的变化和基板的变形。在此基础上,说明了基板变形的机理和影响基板变形的主要因素。     

Gelcasting of titanium hydride to fabricate low-cost titanium

In this work, low-cost titanium was fabricated by gelcasting of titanium hydride powder. The effects of morphology and grain composition of powder raw material and solid loading on the rheological behavior of gelcasting slurry were studied. The degreasing, dehydriding and sintering behaviors of gelcasted green body were investigated by differential thermal analysis(DTA) and dilatometer.The results show that the solid loading of titanium hydride slurry reaches 50 vol%. Combination of dehydriding and sintering in one process accelerates the densification, and the relative sintered density of the final part achieves96.5 %. In order to test the ability of gelcasting process for fabricating structural materials, a resin handle produced by3 D printing technology was used as a model and a titanium handle was successfully fabricated. Higher solid loading and better sinterability of titanium hydride powder promote manufacture of bulk titanium with high relative density,complex shape and well-defined microstructure.     

Critical thickness of contact melting in the Au/Ge layered film system

We investigate the melting behavior of Au/Ge bilayer (Ge: 5 or 2 nm; Au: 0.1-1.1 nm) thin films using transmission electron microscopy and high energy electron diffraction. It was found that the liquid-phase formation in the system at eutectic temperature takes place only if the gold film mass thickness values are greater than the critical one (0.2 nm). This effect is revealed to be independent of the contact-heating sequence of the components.     

90W-7Ni-3Fe激光选区熔化热行为及试验分析

激光选区熔化是一种成形难加工金属的方法,文中以90W-7Ni-3Fe为研究对象,分别考虑材料在粉末和实体状态下的物性参数,建立温度场有限元模型,模拟成形过程中的温度场,研究了不同工艺参数下的熔池尺寸、温度梯度、冷却速率变化等. 温度场分析表明,熔道中心温度超过了钨的熔点,粉末充分熔化,而熔道搭接处温度仅超过镍铁熔点,钨颗粒并未熔化,因此在相邻道之间区域是以液相烧结方式形成. 同时,设计了相应参数的工艺试验,发现增大能量输入,可以使液相填充更加充分,成形件致密度提高.     

选区激光熔化GH3536合金的热处理工艺

采用OM、SEM和力学性能测试等分析研究了不同热处理工艺对选区激光熔化成形GH3536合金组织及力学性能的影响规律。结果表明,随着固溶温度越高,晶粒尺寸越大,且抗拉强度在高温条件下逐渐增加而室温条件则下降。当固溶温度达到1120 ℃时,室温条件下横向试棒与纵向试棒的抗拉强度分别达到816和731 MPa;900 ℃高温条件下则分别达到189和204 MPa。800 ℃时效处理后合金基体组织析出细小碳化物,产生第二相强化作用,强度得以提升。随着时效时间的增加,碳化物变的密集,但晶粒尺寸几乎没有发生变化,表现为室温抗拉强度与断后伸长率得到提升。当时效时间达到20 h时,室温条件下横向试棒与纵向试棒的抗拉强度分别达到832和747 MPa;900 ℃高温条件下横向试棒与纵向试棒的断后伸长率分别达到8.5%和21.5%。最后得出选区激光熔化成形GH3536合金最优的热处理工艺为:固溶(1120 ℃×1 h)+时效(800 ℃×20 h)。