Evaluation of fly ash- and slag-based geopolymers for the improvement of a soft marine clay by deep soil mixing

The use of deep soil mixing (DSM) in ground-improvement projects, for structures subjected to low to medium loads, has increased over the past decade due to its convenient and practical implementation and its economic advantages. Traditionally, Portland cement and lime have been the most popular binders for DSM applications. However, the ground-improvement industry has been keen to explore environmentally friendly alternatives with low carbon dioxide emission. The aim of this research is to investigate the use of two stockpiled industrial waste by-products, namely, fly ash (FA) and slag (S), as alternative green binders in ground-improvement projects that would reduce the carbon footprint of these projects. In this research, combinations of FA and S, activated by a liquid alkaline activator (L), were evaluated for the ground improvement of a soft marine clay, namely, Coode Island Silt (CIS). The performance of the FA?+?S geopolymers was compared with that of traditional cement and lime control binders. The soil moisture content was set at 0.75, 1.0 and 1.25 of the liquid limit (LL) of the soil to replicate the field conditions. 10, 20 and 30% binders, by dry soil mass, were added to the soil, and the samples were cured for 7 and 28?days. Unconfined compression strength (UCS), flexural beam and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) imaging tests were conducted to evaluate the changes in the engineering behavior and the microstructure of the mixtures. The results indicated that the strength and stiffness of the soft clay were significantly increased by the use of these new FA?+?S binders, which substantiated them as alternatives to traditional cement or lime binders. The optimum binder content was found to be 20%, while CIS?+?5%FA?+?15%S was found to be the optimum mixture. Furthermore, correlations between the UCS and the modulus of elasticity (E₅₀) and between the UCS and the modulus of rupture (R) for the geopolymer mixtures were proposed. They will be valuable to both designers and practitioners of ground-improvement works.     

Clayey soil stabilization using alkali-activated volcanic ash and slag

Lime and Portland cement are the most widely used binders in soil stabilization projects. However, due to the high carbon emission in cement production, research on soil stabilization by the use of more environmentally-friendly binders with lower carbon footprint has attracted much attention in recent years. This research investigated the potential of using alkali-activated ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) and volcanic ash (VA) as green binders in clayey soil stabilization projects, which has not been studied before. The effects of different combinations of VA with GGBS, various liquid/solid ratios, different curing conditions, and different curing periods (i.e. 7 d, 28 d and 90 d) were investigated. Compressive strength and durability of specimens against wet-dry and freeze-thaw cycles were then studied through the use of mechanical and microstructural tests. The results demonstrated that the coexistence of GGBS and VA in geopolymerization process was more effective due to the synergic formation of N-A-S-H and C-(A)-S-H gels. Moreover, although VA needs heat curing to become activated and develop strength, its partial replacement with GGBS made the binder suitable for application at ambient temperature and resulted in a remarkably superior resistance against wet-dry and freeze-thaw cycles. The carbon embodied of the mixtures was also evaluated, and the results confirmed the low carbon footprints of the alkali-activated mixtures. Finally, it was concluded that the alkali-activated GGBS/VA could be promisingly used in clayey soil stabilization projects instead of conventional binders.     

Strength characterization of cohesionless soil treated with cement and polyvinyl alcohol

Lime, cement, and bitumen are well-known traditional binders for improving the bearing capacity of soils. However, the production of these binders results in a massive impact on the environment due to the emission of greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide (CO₂), nitrous oxide (N₂O), and methane (CH₄). In this study, a novel cement–polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) mixture is proposed to fabricate strong composite geomaterials. The advantage of the proposed materials is that they can increase the unconfined compressive strength (UCS) and, combined with cement hydration, producing PVA glue, can be used to fill up the soil pores. Laboratory tests indicate a threefold increase in UCS with the cement–PVA-combined mixture compared to a cement-stabilized one. The results of scanning electron microscope (SEM) observations suggest that the cement–PVA composite can ameliorate the pore structure that is more solid than the cement-stabilized one. Moreover, by curing at 80 °C, the strength of the cement–PVA stabilized soil decreases by threefold, plateauing at the same strength as the non-PVA stabilized soil. In addition, the results of cyclic thermal exposure tests suggest that, with the increase in the number of heating/cooling cycles, the UCS gradually decreases compared to the initial one. However, the loss of UCS is less than 25 % under the three cycles of exposure. Thus, these composites have the potential to promote urban renewal projects in an ecofriendly manner.     

Influence of pozzolan from various by-product materials on mechanical properties of high-strength concrete

This paper presents experimentally investigated the effects of pozzolan made from various by-product materials on mechanical properties of high-strength concrete. Ground pulverized coal combustion fly ash (FA), ground fluidized bed combustion fly ash (FB), ground rice husk–bark ash (RHBA), and ground palm oil fuel ash (POFA) having median particle sizes less than 11 μm were used to partially replace Portland cement type I to cast high-strength concrete. The results suggest that concretes containing FA, FB, RHBA, and POFA can be used as pozzolanic materials in making high-strength concrete with 28-day compressive strengths higher than 80 MPa. After 7 days of curing, the concretes containing 10–40% FA or FB and 10–30% RHBA or POFA exhibited higher compressive strengths than that of the control concrete (CT). The use of FA, FB, RHBA, and POFA to partially replace Portland cement type I has no significant effect on the splitting tensile strength and modulus of elasticity as compared to control concrete or silica fume concretes. This results suggest that the by-products from industries can be used to substitute Portland cement to produce high-strength concrete without alteration the mechanical properties of concrete.     

水泥土搅拌桩在深基坑支护中的应用

水泥土搅拌桩,即利用水泥、石灰等材料作为固化剂的主剂,通过特制的搅拌机械就地将软土和固化剂（浆液状或粉体状）强制搅拌,利用水泥和软土之间所产生的一系列物理化学反应,使软土硬结成具有整体性,水稳定性和一定强度的桩体,从而提高地基承载力,减少软土地基的沉降量,抑制侧向变形,满足工程建设要求。水泥浆与软土搅拌形成的柱状固结体,称为深层搅拌桩;水泥粉体与软土搅拌形成的柱状固结体,称为粉喷桩。二者合称为水泥土搅拌桩,简称为搅拌桩。     

Stiffness and strength development of the soft clay stabilized by the one-part geopolymer under one-dimensional compressive loading

In this paper, the one-part alkali-activated geopolymer was adopted as the soil binder to stabilize the soft clay under the one-dimensional compressive loading. Factors influencing the stiffness and strength of the one-part geopolymer stabilized soil such as the proportion of silicon-aluminum raw materials, the mass ratio of solid NaOH (NH) to raw materials and the water-binder ratio were taken into account. The stiffness development of the one-part geopolymer stabilized soft clay under one-dimensional compressive loading was investigated by an improved transducer system equipped with a pair of bender extender elements and the tactile pressure sensor, from which the time history of earth pressure coefficient (i.e., K₀) and elastic wave velocity (i.e., the compression wave velocity V_P and the shear wave velocity V_S) of the stabilized soil sample could be measured, respectively. Furthermore, the unconfined compressive strength (UCS) of the stabilized soil sample cured under varied one-dimensional compressive loadings was tested to reveal the strength development of the geopolymer stabilized soil sample. Among different mixing proportions, the alkali-activated binary precursor [90% ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS) and 10% fly ash (FA)] exhibits the highest performance in terms of the V_S, V_P and UCS of the geopolymer stabilized soil sample when the activator/precursor and water/solid ratio are 0.15 and 0.7 (i.e., the 4.67 mol/L of NH solution), respectively. The prediction of UCS for the one-part geopolymer stabilized soft clay was proposed and established based on the elastic wave velocity (i.e., V_S and V_P). The outcome of the current study sheds light on the practical use of the one-part alkali-activated geopolymer as a soil binder in ground improvement.     

Development of calcium sulfate–ggbs–Portland cement binders

Binders manufactured using a blend of gypsum, ground granulated blast furnace slag and Portland cements are technically viable and possess considerable environmental and economic advantages when compared to binders manufactured using Portland cement alone. As such, the evaluation of binders made from these materials offers a promising research focus in the quest to produce technically sound, environmental and economical binders for specialist uses as an alternative to traditional concrete binders of higher carbon footprint. The aim of the test programme was to investigate the viability of a series of binders designed to fulfil particular user needs while having significantly decreased carbon footprints.Two distinct series of binders were designed; the dominant ingredient in the first was calcium sulfate while in the second it was ggbs. Potential applications for both series of binders were considered and the strength development of each binder was analysed. In addition, the effect of water on the gypsum-based binders was analysed, as was the sulfate resistance of the ggbs-based binder.The results of the laboratory tests carried out were varied. For the calcium sulfate-based binders, those manufactured using anhydrite II as the dominant ingredient were found to achieve highest strengths. However these binders were found to be particularly susceptible to moisture-induced deterioration. For the ggbs-based binders, it was found that the early strength development was improved by the addition of small quantities of anhydrite II and gypsum. The strengths and sulfate resistance at later ages remained unaffected. These binders may have significant potential in situations where early strength development is a requirement.     

深层搅拌法加固软粘土技术

深层搅拌法是用水泥作为固化剂,通过特制的深层搅拌机械,在地基深部就地将软粘土与固化剂强制拌和,使软粘土硬结而提高地基强度。这种新的地基加固方法适用于加固软粘土特别是超软土。本文介绍该技术的主要内容:①室内试验研究;②深层搅拌机械的研制;③深层搅拌法加固软粘土地基的现场试验和工程应用。该加固方法经技术鉴定认为:所研制的SJB-1型深层搅拌机、相应的搅拌工艺及专用固化剂配方等已基本形成一套适合我国条件的陆上深层搅拌技术,为我国软土地基加固技术增添了一种新方法,今后可在软土地基加固工程中逐步推广应用。     

喷粉搅拌桩桩体质量检测方法探讨

水泥粉等粉体加固料是通过专用设备,用压缩空气将粉体喷入地基土中,再通过机械的强制性搅拌将其与软土充分混合,使软土硬结,形成具有整体性较强、水稳性较好、有一定强度的桩柱体,与桩间土和褥垫层形成复合地基,起到加固地基的作用。这种地基处理方法在施工过程中无振动、无污染,对周围环境无不良影响。文章主要针对喷粉搅拌桩桩体质量检测方法进行研究。     

水泥搅拌桩应用于某多层建筑地基处理的设计探讨

本文以某多层工业建筑应用水泥搅拌桩进行地基处理的设计为实例。介绍了软土地基如何采用水泥土搅拌法进行地基处理的设计方法以及应当注意的一些问题。并举例说明了水泥搅拌桩的计算方法。可为类似工程实践及设计时参考使用。     

水泥土搅拌法复合地基测试方法探讨

水泥土搅拌法处理松软土地基的设计与施工技术日益成熟，但作为处理效果评价依据的测试方法尚不完善。本文提出复合地基静载荷试验结合低应变动测是检测水泥土搅拌法地基处理效果的有效方法。     

Strength development in silty clay stabilized with calcium carbide residue and fly ash

Calcium carbide residue (CCR) and fly ash (FA) are waste products from acetylene gas factories and power plants, respectively. The mixture of CCR and FA can produce a cementitious material because CCR contains a large amount of Ca(OH)₂ while FA is a pozzolanic material. Soil stabilization by CCR is classified using three zones: active, inert and deterioration. In the active zone, the natural pozzolanic material in the soil is adequate to produce a pozzolanic reaction. Hence, the input of FA into this zone does not significantly improve strength. Strength in the inert zone can be significantly increased by adding FA. FA improves the densification and pozzolanic reaction. The deterioration zone is not recommended for use in practice, even with the input of FA. The unsoundness due to free lime hinders strength development. Although the soaked and unsoaked strengths depend mainly on the CCR and FA contents, most of the ratios of soaked strength to unsoaked strength vary between 0.45 and 0.65. It is proved that a mixture of CCR and FA can be used for soil stabilization instead of ordinary Portland cement. The possible mechanism regarding the control of strength development presented in this paper can be applied to other clayey soils stabilized with different cementitious materials produced from Ca(OH)₂-rich and pozzolanic materials. This putative mechanism is also fundamental for further studies involving the development of rational dosage methodologies.     

地聚合物胶凝材料性能及工程应用研究综述

针对地聚合物胶凝材料的制备及其应用技术,从理论研究和工程应用2个角度对这一领域进展进行归类和分析。在基本理论部分,详细介绍了国内外对地聚合物的反应机理、产物结构特征及其性能的研究成果,并系统论述了影响地聚合物结构及其性能的重要因素。在工程应用部分,重点阐述了地聚合物在加筋混凝土结构、制备建筑砌块/砖和加固不良土体等方面的应用研究进展。结果表明:地聚合物是一种具有三维空间网状结构的聚硅铝酸盐胶凝材料,其反应过程和产物结构特征均不同于普通硅酸盐水泥; 合理的碱激发剂类型与浓度、适宜的Si/Al比和Na(K)/Al比、适量的钙组分以及合理的养护条件等均有利于提高地聚合产物的力学性能和耐久性能; 地聚合物材料不仅具有很多优异的性能,而且其能耗低、排放少,在加筋混凝土结构、制备建筑砌块/砖、加固不良土体等领域有着非常广阔的应用前景,但关于地聚合物加筋混凝土构件、地聚合物砌块/砖和地聚合物固化土在多种环境因素耦合作用下的耐久性能等问题仍需进行深入探讨与研究。     

水泥土连拱抗滑墙加固软基边坡的应用研究

软基边坡处理中常采用水泥土搅拌桩复合地基。但受水平推力作用时桩体存在弯折效应且施工时易出现劣质层。本文采用水泥土连拱抗滑墙加固软基边坡,采用数值分析的方法建立三维模型,分析加固前后边坡的水平侧移、沉降、应力、边坡稳定性的变化,并深入的分析了连拱抗滑墙抗滑机理。研究表明连拱抗滑墙加固边坡技术具有性能可靠、施工方便的优势,在软基边坡加固领域具有广阔的应用前景。     

Radial deformation and failure of stabilised soft clay under uniaxial compression

This study examined the performances of four newly developed binders in stabilising soft Finnish clay by considering both the mechanical behaviour and environmental effect (i.e., carbon footprint). Thirty-six compacted clay-binder mixtures were investigated via uniaxial compression tests, during which photogrammetric scans were performed at axial strains of 0, 1, 3, and 7.5%. The testing protocol enabled the characterisation of full-field radial deformations and fracture developments. Experimental results demonstrated that varying the amounts and types of industrial by-products used in the production of binders has substantial potential to reduce carbon footprints. In terms of radial deformations, their distributions were highly non-uniform at different heights and loading stages. Radial displacements increased continuously at axial strains smaller than 3% (corresponding to peak strength point), whereas such a continuity disappeared afterwards, and global failures appeared. Based on three-dimensional (3D) reconstructions, the observed failures were categorised into three modes: inclined shearing (IS), axial splitting (AS) and hybrid shearing-splitting (HSS). For the studied specimens, shearing was the most common mechanism leading to failure.     

Using fiber and liquid polymer to improve the behaviour of cement-stabilized soft clay

This work studies the effect of using two types of polymer (fibers and liquid) to enhance the strength of cemented soft clay. Four polymer contents were used (0, 0.1, 0.2, 0.5 and 1% by dry weight of the soil) to investigate the unconfined compressive strength, q_un of soft clay mixed with three cement contents (5, 10 and 15%). For wide understanding to the polymer/cemented soil behaviour several factors were considered in this study such as curing time, dry unit weight, the mixture workability and the behaviour after disturbance. This investigation revealed that both fibers and liquid polymers can improve the cemented soft clay strength, however the fiber mechanism in improving the mixture is totally different than the liquid. Increasing the fiber content shall increase q_un till a peak point at fiber content of 0.5%, where the strength started to reduce after. The mixture workability has been improved with increasing the liquid polymer content, and reduced with increasing the fiber content. Fibers can be used to raise up the strength of disturbed cemented soft clay up to 240% by using fiber content of 0.5%. Both fibers and liquid polymers showed a remarkable mechanically, economically and environmentally dominance to be used as additive to cement in improving the soft clay.     

氧化镁活性对碳化固化效果影响研究

碳化固化技术是近年来提出的一种低碳搅拌处理软弱土创新技术。该技术先采用Mg O水泥与土进行搅拌,再利用CO2对之进行碳化,以达到快速提高强度的目的。针对Mg O活性对碳化固化的影响规律进行了室内试验研究,并分析了其微观机理。结果表明:试样能在3~6 h内完成大部分碳化,碳化24 h后达到稳定,氧化镁活性对碳化固化效果有显著影响,具体表现为氧化镁活性越高,试样碳化后碳化度越高、碳化产物越多、孔隙体积越小、微观结构越密实;试样碳化后体积明显增长,但氧化镁活性对体积变化影响不大,3种氧化镁试样体积膨胀均为16%左右;氧化镁活性越高试样强度越大,高活性氧化镁试样碳化6 h的强度可达标准养护28 d水泥土强度,稳定强度达到2.5 MPa,而低活性氧化镁试样强度仅为0.5 MPa;试样碳化稳定后高活性试样p H值为9.6,低活性试样p H值为9.0,均低于水泥土p H值。     

超长水泥土桩的工程应用及效果评价

介绍用２７ｍ长水泥土桩处理某大型油罐地基（２２ｍ厚淤泥质粘性土）的工程实例。监测结果表明：只要布桩方案合理，水泥土桩中下部强度能得到保证，用超长水泥土桩处理深厚软土地基是完全可行的     

Effect of different mixing ratios of polystyrene pre-puff beads and cement on the mechanical behaviour of lightweight fill

A laboratory study on the formation of a lightweight fill material by blending soil with polystyrene pre-puff (PSPP) beads and other binders such as cement is presented in this paper. The effects of different compositions and different ratios between PSPP beads and soil, cement and soil, water and soil on the density, unconfined compressive strength and deformation of the lightweight fill formed are studied. It is observed that the density of the lightweight fill can be effectively controlled by the amount of PSPP beads used in making the fill. With the inclusion of merely 2–6% of PSPP beads (to soil by weight), the density of the lightweight fill formed can be reduced to 700–1100 kg/m³. The shear strength and stiffness of the lightweight fill can be controlled by adjusting the amount of cement used. The unconfined compressive strength of the lightweight fill increases considerably if a cement to soil ratio of 10–15% is used. Compared with the expanded polystyrene (EPS) block geofoam, the PSPP beads mixed lightweight fill has a higher density, but higher shear strength and higher stiffness too. It can be used as a substitute of EPS blocks when irregular shaped volumes are to be filled or when stronger fill materials are required.     

沿海地区软土地基处理浅析

以福建省泉州市滨江路南段工程为例,结合场地地质条件,通过对换填、抛石挤淤、预压结合塑料排水板、水泥搅拌桩、挤密碎石桩、强夯法等软土地基处理方案进行技术经济比较,阐述了对不同地段采取的不同加固措施,为类似工程的软基处理积累了经验。