Human risky choice: Delay sensitivity depends on reinforcer type.

The present study was designed to help bridge the methodological gap between human and nonhuman animal research in delay-based risky choice. In Part 1, 4 adult human subjects made repeated choices between variable-time and fixed-time schedules of 30-s video clips. Both alternatives had equal mean delays of 15 s, 30 s, or 60 s. Three of 4 subjects strongly preferred the variable-delay alternative across all conditions. In Part 2, these 3 subjects were then provided pairwise choices between 2 variable-time schedules with different delay distributions. Subjects generally preferred the variable-delay distributions with a higher probability of short-reinforcer delays, consistent with accounts based on nonlinear discounting of delayed reinforcement. There was only weak correspondence between experimental results and verbal reports. The overall pattern of results is inconsistent with prior risky choice research with human subjects but is consistent with prior results with nonhuman subjects, suggesting that procedural differences may be a critical factor determining risk-sensitivity across species. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Personal relative deprivation, delay discounting, and gambling.

Several lines of research have provided evidence for a relation between personal relative deprivation and gambling. Despite this knowledge, little is known about possible psychological mechanisms through which personal relative deprivation exerts its influence on gambling. The authors of this research sought to examine one such mechanism: the desire for immediate rewards. Using complementary approaches to studying psychological mechanisms, they tested in four studies the general hypothesis that personal relative deprivation translates into gambling urges and behavior in part via increased desires for immediate, even if smaller, rewards. Study 1 showed that an experimental manipulation of personal relative deprivation increased participants' preferences for smaller-sooner over larger-later rewards during a delay-discounting task. Studies 2 and 3 showed that a decreased willingness to delay gratification led to increased gambling behavior. Study 4 showed that preferences for smaller-sooner over larger-later rewards statistically mediated the relation between self-reported personal relative deprivation and gambling urges among a community sample of gamblers. The implications and potential applications of these findings are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Values, valences, and choice: The influences of values on the perceived attractiveness and choice of alternatives.

Hypotheses about relations between values, valences, and choice were tested in a study in which 239 university students completed the Schwartz Value Survey (S. H. Schwartz, 1992) and then responded to 10 hypothetical scenarios, each of which presented them with 2 alternative courses of action assumed to prime different value types from the Schwartz circular structure. For each scenario, participants rated the attractiveness or valence of each alternative and then indicated which one they would choose. Results showed that, as predicted, valences were related to value types, and choice of alternative was a function of both value types and valences. The pattern of relations was consistent with the assumption that values may induce valences on potential actions and outcomes and that value types may be organized into 2 bipolar dimensions, one of which contrasts openness to change with conservation and the other of which contrasts self-enhancement with self-transcendence. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Influences of delay and rate of reinforcement on discrete-trial choice.

An adjusting procedure was used to measure 4 White Carneaux pigeons' preferences among alternatives that differed in the duration of a delay before reinforcement and of an intertrial interval (ITI) after reinforcement. In most conditions, a peck at a red key led to a fixed delay, followed by reinforcement, a fixed ITI, and then the beginning of the next trial. A peck at a green key led to an adjustable delay, reinforcement, and then the next trial began without an ITI. The purpose of the adjusting delay was to estimate an indifference point, or a delay that made an S approximately indifferent between the 2 alternatives. As the ITI for the red key increased from 0 to 60 sec, the green-key delay at the indifference point increased systematically, but only slightly. The fact that there was some increase showed that Ss' choices were controlled by more than simply the delay to the next reinforcer. An analysis that ignored reinforcement rate but that considered the delays between a choice response and the reinforcers on subsequent trials was able to account for most of the obtained increases in green-key delays. It is concluded that in this type of discrete-trial situation, rate of reinforcement exerts little or no control over choice behavior. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of work values on job choice decisions.

Work values have been receiving increased research attention. E. C. Ravlin, B. M. Meglino, and their associates have recently conceptualized and provided measurement of work values. Although the effects of work values on job satisfaction, commitment, and individual decision making have been studied, work values have not been explicitly linked to job choice decisions. Using a sample of professional degree students and a policy-capturing design, the authors examined the influence of organizational work values on job choice in the context of job attributes that have been shown to affect this decision process. Organizational work values significantly affected job choice decisions. Individuals were more likely to choose jobs whose value content was similar to their own value orientation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Magnitude estimations of expressions of frequency and amount.

Used magnitude estimation to find the numerical equivalents of 39 expressions of frequency ranging from never to always, and 44 expressions of amount ranging from none to all. Data were collected from 175 male and female night school master's degree students, adult undergraduates, and high school juniors. Results were generalizable across 3 age-occupation levels and unaffected by topic importance. Geometric means and appropriate variance measures are provided for each expression as well as suggestions for anchors for 4- to 9-point scales. The percentage of overlap in judgments for adjacent points on scales are also given. Results are related to earlier work on scaling, and the utility of the present approach is indicated. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A steady-state test of the demand curve analysis of relative reinforcer efficacy.

The demand curve analysis of relative reinforcer efficacy (W. K. Bickel, L. A. Marsch, & M. E. Carroll, 2000) predicts that preference for 1 reinforcer over another may be predicted from relative levels of consumption under single-schedule conditions. Prior experiments with human cigarette smokers have largely confirmed this prediction, but because subjects completed only 1 session under each arrangement, questions remain about the stability of single and concurrent-schedule (choice) performances. In addition, no prior tests of this prediction of the demand curve analysis have used nonhuman subjects, so questions remain about the effects of instructions and demand characteristics. In the present study, the authors examined pigeons' steady-state preferences in a closed economy across a wide range of concurrent fixed-ratio and random-ratio (RR) schedules. On the basis of the pigeons' single-schedule consumption, the demand curve analysis qualitatively predicted indifference at low ratio values and preference for the RR alternative at higher ratio values. These predictions proved correct in 88% of the cases in which the analysis predicted preferences in individual subjects at specific concurrent-schedule values. These findings offer preliminary support for the position that the predictions of the demand curve analysis hold true when steady-state performances are assessed. They also offer preliminary evidence that previous confirmations of the demand curve analysis were not due to the influence of instructions or to demand characteristics of the human laboratory setting. These findings supplement prior questioning of the coherence and utility of traditional measures of relative reinforcer efficacy. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of absolute and relative gap sizes in visual search for closure

In three visual search experiments using completely closed squares and squares with gaps, the physical gap size and the ratio of gap size relative to contour length were systematically manipulated. In search for an open square among closed squares, the search rates were fast and independent of the physical gap size or the gap-to-contour ratio. This is consistent with previous studies (e.g., Treisman & Souther, 1985). In contrast, in search for a closed square among open squares, the gap-to-contour ratio determined the search rates, irrespective of physical gap size. The latter result suggests that visual search is based not on local contour information but on global closure information, which seems to be constructed at some higher level of visual processing, probably at the level of perceptual representations of shapes and objects (e.g., Elder & Zucker, 1993; Rensink & Enns, 1995).     

Effect of reinforcer devaluation on discriminative control of instrumental behavior.

Two experiments examined the effect of reinforcer devaluation on the ability of a discriminative stimulus (Sd) to control instrumental behavior in Sprague-Dawley rats. In Experiment 1 reinforcer devaluation reduced, but did not eliminate, the ability of the Sd to control performance of the original response and to transfer its control to a new response trained with the same reinforcer. The effect of devaluation was more complete in Experiment 2, in which the reinforcer was delivered directly into the oral cavity. However, retraining the response with a different reinforcer partially restored the ability of the Sd to control performance of that response. These results suggest that an Sd may not augment its trained responses when the reinforcer has been completely devalued but may promote responses with which it shares a reinforcer, as long as those responses are associated with some reinforcer that retains its value. The implications of these results for the way that discriminative stimuli control instrumental behavior are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Development of absolute and relative concepts of number in preschool children.

30 3-yr-olds, 30 4-yr-olds, and 30 5-yr-olds were given problems relevant to 2 aspects of number understanding. Six problems involved "matching tasks," whereby Ss were asked to match the number of dots. This tested whether Ss understood number as representing an amount. Eight problems required Ss to choose a series of lengths or numbers that were arranged in sequential order, which tested whether they understood the "order" component of number. A scalogram analysis was performed to discover the sequence with which these numerical abilities were acquired. There was a valid scale in which "amount" abilities appeared before "order" abilities. This suggests that children understand number as an absolute amount before they understand it as part of a progressive sequence, in contradiction to the ordinal theory of number. (10 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relations of temperament to the choice of values.

The hypothesis that the expressed value system of an individual is related to his temperament was tested. The value system was determined from response to the Ways to Live document, and temperament was measured by the Thurstone Temperament Schedule. The Ss consisted of 250 male college students of ages 20 or 21 from colleges throughout the U. S. "The results of this study strongly suggest substantial relationships between the domain of temperament and that of value, especially for values represented by Factors B and C, Enjoyment and Progress in Action, and Withdrawal and Self-Sufficiency. Relations are less marked between temperament areas and value Factor D, Receptivity… " (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Impulsivity in students with serious emotional disturbance: the interactive effects of reinforcer rate, delay, and quality

We conducted two studies extending basic matching research on self-control and impulsivity to the investigation of choices of students diagnosed as seriously emotionally disturbed. In Study 1 we examined the interaction between unequal rates of reinforcement and equal versus unequal delays to reinforcer access on performance of concurrently available sets of math problems. The results of a reversal design showed that when delays to reinforcer access were the same for both response alternatives, the time allocated to each was approximately proportional to obtained reinforcement. When the delays to reinforcer access differed between the response alternatives, there was a bias toward the response alternative and schedule with the lower delays, suggesting impulsivity (i.e., immediate reinforcer access overrode the effects of rate of reinforcement). In Study 2 we examined the interactive effects of reinforcer rate, quality, and delay. Conditions involving delayed access to the high-quality reinforcers on the rich schedule (with immediate access to low-quality reinforcers earned on the lean schedule) were alternated with immediate access to low-quality reinforcers on the rich schedule (with delayed access to high-quality reinforcers on the lean schedule) using a reversal design. With 1 student, reinforcer quality overrode the effects of both reinforcer rate and delay to reinforcer access. The other student tended to respond exclusively to the alternative associated with immediate access to reinforcers. The studies demonstrate a methodology based on matching theory for determining influential dimensions of reinforcers governing individuals' choices.     

The effectiveness and relative importance of choice in the classroom.

This investigation examined the effects of providing choices among homework assignments on motivation and subsequent academic performance. Students were randomly assigned within classrooms either to receive a choice of homework options or to be assigned an option for all homework in one instructional unit. Conditions were reversed for a second instructional unit. Results revealed that when students received a choice of homework they reported higher intrinsic motivation to do homework, felt more competent regarding the homework, and performed better on the unit test compared with when they did not have a choice. In addition, a trend suggested that having choices enhanced homework completion rates compared with when no choices were given. In a second analysis involving the same students, the importance of perceived provision of choice was examined in the context of student perceptions of their teachers' support for autonomy more broadly defined. Survey data showed that the relationship between perceptions of receiving autonomy support from teachers and intrinsic motivation for schoolwork could be fully accounted for by students' perceptions of receiving choices from their teachers. The limitations and implications of the study for research and practice are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Seeking urgent pediatric treatment: Factors contributing to frequency, delay, and appropriateness.

Explored the factors that contributed to mothers' decisions to seek urgent medical attention for their children when symptoms were not of a traumatic nature. 89 mothers (mean age 28.4 yrs) seeking treatment for their children (mean age 5.3 yrs) at a prepaid clinic completed a questionnaire eliciting their expectations regarding the course of their children's problems, seriousness of the problems, perceived responsibility for the symptoms, and extent to which a variety of factors contributed to their decisions to seek treatment. Demographic data and information about each child's symptoms and medical history were also obtained. Four major reasons for seeking treatment were identified: family history of the presenting complaint, worry regarding the symptoms, situational variables, and the extent of the child's illness behavior. The appropriateness of the visit, delay in seeking treatment, and frequency of mothers' use of the pediatric clinic were predicted by the nature of the presenting symptoms (particularly the presence of fever), the ages of the mother and child, and 2 of the reasons for seeking treatment factors (i.e., family history, child's illness behavior). It is suggested that mothers should pay more attention to presenting symptoms and to the children's behavior than to psychosocial stressors in deciding to seek urgent care. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of absolute and relative gap sizes in visual search for closure.

In 3 visual search experiments using completely closed squares and squares with gaps, the physical gap size and the ratio of gap size relative to contour length were systematically manipulated. A total of 60 undergraduates participated. In search for an open square among closed squares, the search rates were fast and independent of the physical gap size or the gap-to-contour ratio. This is consistent with previous studies (e.g., A. Treisman and J. Souther, 1985). In contrast, in search for a closed square among open squares, the gap-to-contour ratio determined the search rates, irrespective of physical gap size. The latter result suggests that visual search is based not on local contour information but on global closure information, which seems to be constructed at some higher level of visual processing, probably at the level of perceptual representations of shapes and objects (e.g., J. Elder and S. Zucker, 1993; R. A. Rensink and J. T. Enns, 1995). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceptions of absolute versus relative differences between personal and comparison health risk.

Objective: To explain inconsistent results in previous attempts to determine whether, when presented with health risk information, people focus primarily on information about their own risk status or on a comparison with others. Design: A randomized between-groups experiment in which participants were presented with hypothetical cardiac risk information. We examined whether affective responses were primarily sensitive to the relative difference between personal and comparison risk, rather than the absolute difference. Main Outcome Measures: Participants' negative affective response to the risk information. Results: When relative differences were held constant, participants' responses were independently influenced by both personal risk and comparative standing, effects that were greatly attenuated when absolute differences were held constant. When maintaining constant absolute differences, personal and comparison risk information appeared to interact. Conclusion: Previous studies tended to maintain constant absolute risk differences and so may have underestimated the impact of personal risk information. Participants' responses were sensitive to the way the risk difference was constructed. Basing experimental design decisions on assumptions about the information participants will respond to can lead to misinterpretations of the basis of risk judgments. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of length of hospitalization, frequency of penalty, and amount of penalty on the probability learning of schizophrenics.

Predicted that on a probability learning task, an increase in frequency of penalty would differentially increase frequency of choice of the more frequent alternatives in long-term as compared to short-term schizophrenics. Ss were 100 hospitalized schizophrenics. Frequency of penalty was either 100 or 50%; amount, either 1 or 2 cents. Short-term Ss chose the more frequent alternative significantly more often than did long-term Ss. Subsequent analyses suggest that long-term hospitalization may reduce capabilities for shifting rather than forming basic strategies. (24 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of following an excitatory-inhibitory compound with an intermediate reinforcer.

Pavlovian-conditioned inhibition training of the form A++, AB- (where ++ is a strong reinforcer and - is nonreinforcement) was conducted in 3 experiments with rats and 1 with pigeons. Then AB + training was given (in which + is an effective reinforcer that is weaker than ++). The + reinforcer was achieved by reducing the frequency, lessening the amount, or lengthening the delay with which ++ was delivered. All 4 experiments found the AB+ treatment to enhance responding to both the excitatory A and the inhibitory B in comparison with untreated control stimuli. However, when appropriate assessments were made, the increase was more substantial for the inhibitory B. This pattern of results presents challenges for most current theories of associative learning. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social reinforcer satiation: An outcome of frequency not ambiguity—sometimes.

Examined the effects of frequency and contingency of reinforcement on the social deprivation–satiation phenomenon. Work by D. G. Perry and H. Garrow (1975) suggested that the inverse relation between social reinforcer effectiveness and its prior frequency of delivery is not obtained when the delivery has been noncontingent. During a pretraining task, 84 3rd and 4th graders heard the experimenter say "good" either always contingent on their response (S-contingent), never contingent (explicitly unpaired), or randomly noncontingent (random). The praise statement was delivered either at a low (2), high (16), or zero frequency. 12 additional children received no pretraining. In a subsequent discrimination test, correct responses were consistently followed by the word "good." Results indicate a significant 3-way interaction between sex of S, frequency, and contingency. The deprivation–satiation effect was obtained only for boys and only in the S-contingent condition, failing to replicate the findings of Perry and Garrow. Results indicate limits on the generality of the social deprivation–satiation phenomenon. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)