高温渗碳轴承钢旋弯疲劳裂纹萌生与扩展行为

 为了提高航空轴承的服役寿命,借助QBWP-10000X型旋转弯曲疲劳试验机,研究了高温渗碳轴承钢的旋转弯曲疲劳性能和裂纹萌生扩展行为。结果表明,钢的中值疲劳强度达到913.3 MPa。有效渗层中大量M₂₃C₆和少量M₆C碳化物显著提高了试验钢的表面硬度,渗层不同碳浓度导致马氏体先后发生相变而形成408 MPa表面压应力,进而提高了钢的疲劳性能。疲劳裂纹主要萌生在表面缺陷和次表面碳化物,分别占比71.4%和 28.6%。萌生裂纹缺陷特征尺寸及承载应力对应力强度因子和循环次数影响显著,深犁沟形状由于涉及应力集中而直接影响疲劳循环次数,承受相同加载应力碳化物特征尺寸越大,循环次数越低。裂纹萌生后沿渗碳层碳化物边界快速扩展同时向芯部缓慢扩展,最后在试样疲劳源对侧近边缘区域发生准解理和韧性混合断裂。     

Fatigue crack propagation in trip steels

The fatigue crack propagation behavior of a class of metastable austenitic steels called TRIP steels has been investigated. The alloy composition was chosen to have theMs well below room temperature and theMD above room temperature after thermomechanical processing. A simple theoretical model of fatigue crack propagation (FCP) based on fracture mechanics was developed. Fatigue crack propagation tests on SEN specimens at various stress intensity ranges (ΔK) were carried out, and two stage plastic-carbon replica were used to observe the fracture surface of the FCP specimens. To a first approximation, both the experimental and theoretical results followed the usual relationship between ΔK and FCP rates;i.e. da/dn ∝ (ΔK).⁴ The fatigue fracture surface contained fatigue striations, quasicleavage and elongated dimples; a reflection of the complex structure of TRIP steels. A beneficial effect of strain induced martensite transformation with regards to fatigue crack propagation was found. TRIP steels showed better FCP properties than a number of alloy steels of similar strength levels and compared favorably with mar aging steels in the low ΔK range.     

Fatigue crack propagation in carburized X-2M steel

The growth rates of fatigue cracks propagating through the case and into the core have been studied for carburized X-2M steel (0.14 C, 4.91 Cr, 1.31 Mo, 1.34 W, 0.42 V). Fatigue cracks were propagated at constant stress intensities, ΔK, and also at a constant cyclic peak load, and the crack growth rates were observed to pass through a minimum value as the crack traversed the carburized case. The reduction in the crack propagation rates is ascribed to the compressive stresses which were developed in the case, and a pinched clothespin model is used to make an approximate calculation of the effects of internal stress on the crack propagation rates. We define an effective stress intensity, K_e = K_a + K_i, where K_a is the applied stress intensity, K_i = σ_id _i ^1/2 , σ_i is the internal stress, and d_i is a characteristic distance associated with the depth of the internal stress field. In our work, a value of d_i = 11 mm (0.43 inch) fits the data quite well. A good combination of resistance to fatigue crack propagation in the case and fracture toughness in the core can be achieved in carburized X-2M steel, suggesting that this material will be useful in heavy duty gears and in aircraft gas turbine mainshaft bearings operating under high hoop stresses.     

Fatigue crack propagation in some PM steels

Abstract

Mechanisms of fatigue crack growth have been studied for a range of PM steels at relative densities of 0·90 and 1·0, for which strength, fracture toughness, and microstructural information was also available. It is shown that the Paris exponents for steady state crack growth are between 8 and 18 when ρ_r is ～0·9 but when ρ_r is ～1·0 the exponents are between 2·6 and 4·0, i.e in the range typical of wrought steels (2–4). At both densities, threshold stress intensities are between 5·5 and 10·8 MPa m_1/2 when R = 0·1. Combinations of these thresholds and yield strengths are comparable with those for wrought steels. When R = 0·8, reductions in threshold to between 2·7 and 5 MPa m_1/2 are attributed to crack closure effects. At ρ_r = 0·90, Fe–0·5C fails by progressive rupture of sinter necks. Astaloy A, with 0·2%C and 0·6%C, and Distaloy AB–0·6C have smaller plastic zone sizes and the cracks follow more difficult paths through particles as well as necks. When ρ_r is ～1·0, fracture is partially by true fatigue modes and partly by cleavage, the bursts of cleavage being more noticeable when K_maxis high.     

Fatigue crack propagation in martensitic and austenitic steels

Fatigue crack growth rates were measured in an annealed and in an aged maraging steel and in three different austenitic steels. Microhardness measurements were used to determine the plane strain plastic zone sizes as a function of ΔK and to evaluate the cyclic flow stress of the material near the crack tip. The presence of a reversed cyclic plastic zone within the monotonic plastic zone was confirmed. The two maraging steels work soften near the tip of the crack while the three austenitic steels work harden. The fatigue crack growth rates of the maraging steels are independent of the monotonic yield stress and are typical of the growth rates of steels with a bcc crystal structure. The crack growth rates in the stainless steels are an order of magnitude lower than for maraging steels for ΔK< 30 ksi √in. The excellent fatigue crack growth resistance of austenitic stainless steels is related to the de-formation induced phase transformations taking place in the plastic zone and to the low stacking fault energy of the alloys.     

Fatigue crack propagation in a directionally-solidified nickel-base alloy

High cycle fatigue crack growth rates have been measured in the cast nickel-base alloy IN 738 LC in directionally-solidified form, at room and high temperature and for crack propagation both parallel and perpendicular to the solidification direction. The resistance of this material to crack propagation has been compared with conventionally-cast material of the same composition. The considerable differences in observed growth rates may be understood in terms of the effects of chemical segregation, crack branching and crystallographic fracture. In particular, the high-temperature cyclic fracture toughness for crack growth perpendicular to the solidification direction is higher than in conventionally-cast material as cracks tend to deviate along the segregated interdendritic regions. However the room temperature threshold stress intensity amplitude is low because fatigue crack growth occurs on definite crystallographic planes.     

Fatigue crack propagation in a directionally-solidified nickel-base alloy

High cycle fatigue crack growth rates have been measured in the cast nickel-base alloy IN 738 LC in directionally-solidified form, at room and high temperature and for crack propagation both parallel and perpendicular to the solidification direction. The resistance of this material to crack propagation has been compared with conventionally-cast material of the same composition. The considerable differences in observed growth rates may be understood in terms of the effects of chemical segregation, crack branching and crystallographic fracture. In particular, the high-temperature cyclic fracture toughness for crack growth perpendicular to the solidification direction is higher than in conventionally-cast material as cracks tend to deviate along the segregated interdendritic regions. However the room temperature threshold stress intensity amplitude is low because fatigue crack growth occurs on definite crystallographic planes.     

Fatigue crack initiation and strain-controlled fatigue of some high strength low alloy steels

Initiation and growth of fatigue microcracks were investigated in several Nb and V alloyed high strength low alloy steels, including conventional and dual phase microstructures. Fatigue microcracks initiated along prominent slip bands. Macrocracks formed by linking up of small microcracks. At low applied stress or strain, the number of cycles to crack initiation increased with the cyclic yield stress. Comparing the cyclic stress-strain curves to the monotonie stress-strain curves, cyclic hardening or softening occurred, depending upon strain amplitude. Plateau regions were observed in plots of cyclic stress amplitudevs cyclic plastic strain amplitude obtained by increasing the total strain amplitude in steps after 30 cycles at each step. In polycrystalline 0.03 pct Nb steel, the plateau region was identified with prominent slip band formation, as others have observed in single crystals of copper, C-doped iron, and other metals.     

Fatigue crack propagation near fatigue threshold in various structural steels

The investigations have been conducted by measuring fatigue crack propagation near fatigue threshold in various structural steels differing in chemical composition and strength level. The fatigue crack propagation measurements were carried out using the constant-load-amplitude test in Paris-region, R-constant and K_max-constant method in near fatigue threshold region. Scanning electron microscopy at fatigue crack front on fracture surface was applied to interpret the influence of crack closure effects on the measured fatigue threshold. Marked fretting oxide deposits distributed on the fracture surface at threshold level were observed in a low load ratio resulting from the combined action of plasticity- and oxide-induced crack closure under laboratory atmosphere. Fatigue threshold dependent on the load ratio appeared to be related to the extent of the crack closure effect. By considering the relationship of reversed plastic zone size and grain size the fatigue threshold in region of crack closure was calculated theoretically. The result has shown a good agreement with the experimentally measured values.     

Fatigue crack initiation and propagation behavior of high cobalt molybdenum stainless bearing steel

The crack initiation and propagation behavior of high cobalt molybdenum stainless bearing steel was studied by rotating bending fatigue test with smooth cylindrical specimens and notched specimens (theoretical stress concentration factor Kt=3). The fatigue limit and S- N curve of bearing steel were measured by up- and- down method and group method, respectively. The fractures of the specimens were observed by scanning electron microscopy. The results show that the cracking type of the smooth specimens is single source initiation. The crack source is surface defects and subsurface inclusion. The surface defects are surface roughness, persistent slip band and machining dent, while the subsurface inclusion is Al2O3- CaO- MgO- SiO2 composite inclusion. The fatigue limit of notched specimens is significantly decreased. The cracking type of the notched specimens is multi- source initiation. The notch sensitivity factor qf of bearing steel is 1. 18. The fatigue failure of the smooth specimens is transferred from the surface roughness with high stress amplitude to the persistent slip bands, the machining dents and the inclusions with low stress amplitude. The fatigue crack initiation life accounts for more than 94. 1% of the whole fatigue life.     

Fatigue properties of high strength-low alloy steels

High strength-low alloy (HSLA) steels are a relatively new group of alloys similar to hot rolled low carbon steel (HRLC) but having higher strengths as a result of composition and processing variations. Because these steels are of potential use in a variety of structural applications involving cyclic loading a knowledge of their fatigue behavior is important. Fatigue experiments were performed on several 80 ksi yield strength HSLA steels and on conventional HRLC steel for comparison. The HSLA steels were all found to exhibit similar fatigue resistance, and were superior to HRLC steel at longer lives. The effects on fatigue behavior of two types of plastic prestrain were determined.While prestrains caused large increases in monotonic strength properties, such improvements were largely lost in fatigue due to cyclic softening. Tensile prestrains are more detrimental to fatigue resistance than compressive prestrains. Finally, it was found that HSLA steel has a higher fatigue notch sensitivity than HRLC steel, however its notch fatigue resistance is still superior to that of HRLC steel.     

Fatigue properties of high strength-low alloy steels

High strength-low alloy (HSLA) steels are a relatively new group of alloys similar to hot rolled low carbon steel (HRLC) but having higher strengths as a result of composition and processing variations. Because these steels are of potential use in a variety of structural applications involving cyclic loading a knowledge of their fatigue behavior is important. Fatigue experiments were performed on several 80 ksi yield strength HSLA steels and on conventional HRLC steel for comparison. The HSLA steels were all found to exhibit similar fatigue resistance, and were superior to HRLC steel at longer lives. The effects on fatigue behavior of two types of plastic prestrain were determined. While prestrains caused large increases in monotonic strength properties, such improvements were largely lost in fatigue due to cyclic softening. Tensile prestrains are more detrimental to fatigue resistance than compressive prestrains. Finally, it was found that HSLA steel has a higher fatigue notch sensitivity than HRLC steel, however its notch fatigue resistance is still superior to that of HRLC steel.     

Fatigue crack initiation and propagation of binder-treated powder metallurgy steels

Many of the targeted applications for powder-metallurgy materials, particularly in the automotive industry, undergo cyclic loading. It is, therefore, essential to examine the fatigue mechanisms in these materials. The mechanisms of fatigue-crack initiation and propagation in ferrous powder-metallurgy components have been investigated. The fatigue mechanisms are controlled primarily by the inherent porosity present in these materials. Since most, if not all, fatigue cracks initiate and propagate at the specimen surface, surface replication was used to determine the role of surface porosity in relation to fatigue behavior. Surface replication provides detailed information on both initiation sites and on the propagation path of fatigue cracks. The effect of microstructural features such as pore size and pore shape, as well as the heterogeneous microstructure on crack deflection, was examined and is discussed. Fracture surfaces were examined to elucidate a mechanistic understanding of fatigue processes in these materials.     

Fatigue crack propagation in dual-phase steels: Effects of ferritic-martensitic microstructures on crack path morphology

microstructures with maximum resistance to fatigue crack extension while maintaining high strength levels. A wide range of crack growth rates has been examined, from ~10^-8 to 10^-3 mm per cycle, in a series of duplex microstructures of comparable yield strength and prior austenite grain size where intercritical heat treatments were used to vary the proportion, morphology, and distribution of the ferrite and martensite phases. Results of fatigue crack propagation tests, conducted on “long cracks” in room temperature moist air environments, revealed a very large influence of microstructure over the entire spectrum of growth rates at low load ratios. Similar trends were observed at high load ratio, although the extent of the microstructural effects on crack growth behavior was significantly less marked. Specifically, microstructures containing fine globular or coarse martensite in a coarse-grained ferritic matrix demonstrated exceptionally high resistance to crack growth without loss in strength properties. To our knowledge, these microstructures yielded the highest ambient temperature fatigue threshold stress intensity range ΔK₀ values reported to date, and certainly the highest combination of strength and ΔK₀ for steels (i.e., ΔK₀ values above 19 MPa√m with yield strengths in excess of 600 MPa). Such unusually high crack growth resistance is attributed primarily to a tortuous morphology of crack path which results in a reduction in the crack driving force from crack deflection and roughness-induced crack closure mechanisms. Quantitative metallography and experimental crack closure measurements, applied to currently available analytical models for the deflection and closure processes, are presented to substantiate such interpretations. Formerly Lecturer and Research Engineer in the Department of Materials Science and Mineral Engineering, University of California     

Fatigue crack propagation in aluminum-lithium alloy 2090: Part II. small crack behavior

A study has been made of the mechanics and mechanisms of fatigue crack propagation in a commercial plate of aluminum-lithium alloy 2090-T8E41. In Part II, the crack growth behavior of naturallyoccurring, microstructurally-small (2 to 1000μm) surface cracks is examined as a function of plate orientation, and results compared with those determined in Part I on conventional long (≳5 mm) crack samples. It is found that the near-threshold growth rates of small cracks are between 1 to 3 orders of magnitude faster than those for long cracks, subjected to the same nominal stress intensity ranges (at a load ratio of 0.1). Moreover, the small cracks show no evidence of an intrinsic threshold and propagate at ΔK levels as low as 0.7 MPa{ie563-01}, far below the long crack threshold ΔK_TH. Their behavior is also relatively independent of orientation. Such accelerated small crack behavior is attributed primarily to restrictions in the development of crack tip shielding (principally from roughness-induced crack closure) with cracks of limited wake. This notion is supported by the close correspondence of small crack results with long crack growth rates plotted in terms of ΔK_eff (i.e., after allowing for closure above the effective long crack threshold). Additional factors, including the different statistical sampling effect of large and small cracks with microstructural features, are briefly discussed.     

Fatigue crack propagation in aluminum- lithium alloy 2090: Part I. long crack behavior

A study has been made of the mechanics and mechanisms of fatigue crack propagation in a commercial plate of aluminum-lithium alloy 2090-T8E41. In Part I, the crack growth and crack shielding behavior of long (≳5 mm) through-thickness cracks is examined as a function of plate orientation and load ratio, and results compared to traditional high strength aluminum alloys. It is shown that rates of fatigue crack extension in 2090 are, in general, significantly slower (at a given stress intensity range) than in traditional alloys, although behavior is strongly anisotropic. Differences in growth rates of up to 4 orders of magnitude are observed between the L-T, T-L, and T-S orientations, which show the best crack growth resistance, and the S-L, S-T, and L + 45, which show the worst. Such behavior is attributed to the development of significant crack tip shielding (i.e., a reduction in local crack driving force), primarily resulting from the role of the crack path morphology in inducing crack deflection and crack closure from the consequent asperity wedging. Whereas crack advance perpendicular to the rolling plane (e.g., L-T,etc.) involves marked crack path deflection and branching, thereby promoting very high levels of shielding to cause the slowest growth rates, fatigue fractures parallel to the rolling plane (e.g., S-L,etc.) occur by an intergranular, delamination-type separation, with much lower shielding levels to give the fastest growth rates. The implications of such “extrinsic toughening” effects on the fracture and fatigue properties of aluminum-lithium alloys are discussed in detail. R. O. RITCHIE, Professor and Director, Center for Advanced Materials, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory     

Fatigue crack propagation in Stage I in an Aluminum-Zinc-Magnesium alloy: General characteristics

Fatigue crack propagation in Stage I in an age-hardened Al-Zn-Mg alloy was investigated using notched single crystal specimens. In a dry nitrogen gas environment, propagation occurs almost exclusively in the primary slip plane and preferentially along favorably oriented crystallographic slip directions. The resulting fracture surfaces show increasing roughness with increasing propagation velocities; at small velocities (about 70Å/cycle) they appear like cleavage surfaces, whereas at large velocities (about 2000Å/cycle) they are associated with much more ductility and show a dimpled structure. These observations indicate that the plastic relaxation at Stage I crack tip increases with increasing velocities. In the presence of moisture in the test environment crack growth occurs at larger velocities giving rise to more reflective fracture surfaces. The moisture in the environment seems to be responsible also for the inter crystalline Stage I crack propagation observed in polycrystalline samples. Low stacking fault energy materials deforming by planar slip do not show a similar tendency to fracture in macroscopic slip bands.     

Fatigue crack propagation in Stage I in an aluminum-zinc-magnesium alloy: General characteristics

Fatigue crack propagation in Stage I in an age-hardened Al-Zn-Mg alloy was investigated using notched single crystal specimens. In a dry nitrogen gas environment, propagation occurs almost exclusively in the primary slip plane and preferentially along favorably oriented crystallographic slip directions. The resulting fracture surfaces show increasing roughness with increasing propagation velocities; at small velocities (about 70⇘/ cycle) they appear like cleavage surfaces, whereas at large velocities (about 2000⇘/ cycle) they are associated with much more ductility and show a dimpled structure. These observations indicate that the plastic relaxation at Stage I crack tip increases with increasing velocities. In the presence of moisture in the test environment crack growth occurs at larger velocities giving rise to more reflective fracture surfaces. The moisture in the environment seems to be responsible also for the inter crystalline Stage I crack propagation observed in polycrystalline samples. Low stacking fault energy materials deforming by planar slip do not show a similar tendency to fracture in macroscopic slip bands.     

Fatigue crack propagation in 4140 steel

The fatigue crack propagation rates, da/dN, of 4140 steel were measured in dry argonvs tempering temperature. In specimens 3.2 mm thick at a given ΔK between 15 and 30 MN/ m^3/2, da/dN decreases with increasing tempering temperature, reaches a shallow minimum for tempering at 400°C. The rate for as-quenched specimens increases withR ratio; this is not the case for the 400, 550 and 650°C tempers. Reducing the specimen thickness to 1.3 mm has little effect on the 650°C temper but causes a large decrease in da/dN for the asquenched condition and 200°C temper. Edge notch specimens tempered at 550 and 650°C are subject to crack arrest from cycling prior to crack initiation. The results are discussed in terms of the metallurgical structures and various fatigue crack propagation equations which have been proposed. The results cannot be explained on the basis of da/dN being determined only by Young’s modulus andK _c.