Development of an on-machine profile measurement system in ELID grinding for machining aspheric surface with software compensation

Efficient manufacture of dimensionally accurate optical surface on hard and brittle materials is a major concern for optoelectronic industry. Electrolytic in process dressing (ELID) grinding is proved as a reliable process to achieve this optical quality nano-surface finish on hard and brittle materials. Besides surface finish it is important to ensure dimensional accuracy by improving profile and form accuracy of the ground aspheric surface. Kinematic factors are commonly considered the reasons for the dimensional inaccuracy in a machined part. Software compensation is a direct and economical method to overcome several kinematic factors and improve the dimensional accuracy. Last, but most important, is the monitoring of achieved surface profile to ensure more accurate profile radius in the finished part. So an on-machine profile measurement system based on coordinate measuring machine (CMM) principle has been developed to check the profile radius of the ground surface. In this study software compensation was applied in ELID grinding of an aspheric surface in order to compensate the wheel wear until the measured surface profile machined on BK7 glass reaches within tolerable limit.     

非球面垂直磨削法的砂轮误差分析与实验研究

针对垂直磨削法中砂轮误差对超精密磨削非球面加工质量的影响,通过对多种砂轮误差的逐一理论分析,阐述了各种砂轮误差对非球面磨削加工质量的影响状况,并对部分砂轮误差进行校正和补偿,以提高磨削加工质量。最后,通过非球面磨削加工实验验证了砂轮误差补偿的正确性。该研究为非球面超精密磨削加工中砂轮误差的补偿提供技术参考。      

用金刚石磨头数控加工轴对称非球面光学玻璃透镜

为了提高轴对称非球面透镜的形状精度,降低其精加工成本,用金刚石小磨头在不同的加工参数和数控走刀轨迹条件下对K9光学玻璃透镜进行铣磨实验加工。透镜的轮廓精度用三坐标测量机测量,通过测量的数据点计算非球面透镜的法向轮廓度误差,并用数控加工时磨头的有效切削半径进行补偿。实验结果表明:当数控走刀轨迹为平行精加工和等高精加工时,加工后非球面透镜的面型精度最大轮廓度偏差PV和误差平均值RMS分别为54.48 μm和22.88 μm、98.46 μm和28.88 μm;通过优化金刚石磨头的有效切削半径可以提高非球面透镜加工的面型精度,平行精加工后优化的非球面透镜面型精度PV和RMS值分别为44.52 μm和7.37 μm。      

Ultra-precision grinding

Ultra-precision grinding is primarily used to generate high quality and functional parts usually made from hard and difficult to machine materials. The objective of ultra-precision grinding is to generate parts with high surface finish, high form accuracy and surface integrity for the electronic and optical industries as well as for astronomical applications. This keynote paper introduces general aspects of ultra-precision grinding techniques and point out the essential features of ultra-precision grinding. In particular, the keynote paper reviews the state-of-the-art regarding applied grinding tools, ultra-precision machine tools and grinding processes. Finally, selected examples of advanced ultra-precision grinding processes are presented.     

Profile error compensation approaches for parallel nanogrinding of aspherical mould inserts

This paper reports a parallel nanogrinding protocol for fabricating aspherical mould inserts. In the protocol, a preliminary grinding cycle was first employed, which significantly reduced the effect of the initial wheel geometry error on the ground profile accuracy. A new compensation approach was developed. The compensation used the ground profile measured from a Talysurf profilometer to modify the NC tool path for the next grinding cycle. The tool path was modified by offsetting the residual profile error along the normal direction of a grinding point, rather than in the horizontal direction commonly used in the conventional method. The performance of the developed method was evaluated by fabricating aspherical mould inserts on cemented tungsten carbide. The result indicated that the residual profile error after two grinding cycles was reduced to approximately 0.4 μm in PV, with average surface roughness of below 10 nm, which is more efficient than the conventional compensation process.     

轴对称非球面加工进给速度控制技术研究

本文根据轴对称非球面的加工误差特性，通过分析轴对称非球面磨削加工中砂轮磨削线速度、进给速度对加工精度影响的条件，提出控制砂轮进给速度使轴对称非球面工件各点磨削量均匀的方法。该技术避免了传统加工方法中原理上固有的磨削量差异缺陷，提高了系统的加工精度。研究结果表明：进给速度控制方法针对轴对称非球面加工中常用的平面砂轮、圆弧砂轮、球面砂轮，均得到了良好的控制效果；采用新方法的数学模型更接近于理论计算轨迹，可以进一步提高工件的加工精度；新方法进给速度由外沿加工至中心部分，进给速度逐渐加快；并且变化率也逐渐增大。     

Profile error compensation in ultra-precision grinding of aspheric surfaces with on-machine measurement

A compensation approach based on the on-machine measurement was developed for the grinding of tungsten carbide aspheric moulds. In this approach, the on-machine measurement was employed to eliminate the profile error caused by the re-installation of the workpiece. A new method was proposed to reconstruct the actual ground profile based on the measured profile data. The overall profile error after grinding was obtained by subtracting the target profile from the actual ground profile along normal direction and was then used to generate a new tool path for compensation grinding. The experimental results showed that after three compensation grinding cycles the aspheric surface had a profile accuracy of 177 nm (in PV) with a roughness of 1.7 nm (in R_a). The on-machine measurement was in excellent agreement with the off-machine measurement by commercially available profilometers.     

非球面超精密磨削误差建模与补偿研究

为提高课题组自研的超精密磨床加工精度,基于多体系统理论,运用齐次坐标变换原理,分析该超精密磨床37项几何误差来源,对非球面超精密磨削的综合误差建模。超精密磨床的多项几何误差元素已在制造阶段标定、补偿,取砂轮对刀误差和砂轮轮廓半径磨损误差作为主要面形误差来源,分别推导其对综合误差的传递函数,分析误差辨识方法,建立误差修正补偿模型,提出基于直接补偿的点补修正法。试验结果表明：建立的综合误差模型正确,根据误差辨识方法和修正补偿模型,修正误差后面形误差显著降低,有效提高面形精度。     

Finishing of optical moulds to λ/20 by automated corrective polishing

Tungsten carbide is widely used to make replication moulds for small aspheric and freeform optics, like camera lenses. Since aspheric generation by grinding generally fails to reach ultra-precision criteria, a time efficient method for finishing moulds is needed. Using a 7-axis CNC polishing machine, an on-machine tool forming technique and compensation software were developed to correctively polish a plano WC surface of diameter 25 mm from a form error above λ to below λ/20 (29 nm P-V) in under 1 h, while reducing roughness to 1.0 nm Ra. This automatic method and tooling are applicable to aspheric and freeform moulds.     

齿轮成形磨削能耗与表面粗糙度研究

齿轮成形磨削的能耗研究对于高精度齿轮的低碳制造具有重要意义.从数控成形磨齿机床的部件层面出发,分析齿轮成形磨削的能耗组成部分;基于磨削功率和材料切除率,建立齿轮成形磨削的净能耗密度模型;通过齿轮成形磨削试验发现,增加磨削能耗,会使表面粗糙度减小,但随着磨削能耗的持续增加,表面粗糙度减小幅度有限.研究结果为齿轮成形磨削的能耗与加工质量协同优化控制奠定了理论基础.     

非球面磨削加工设备现状与发展趋势

高效、低成本光学玻璃、陶瓷、硬质合金等硬脆材料非球面的超精密磨削加工一直是先进光学制造领域的研究重点.本文介绍了国内外硬脆材料非球面磨削加工设备的发展及最新研制情况,并对其发展趋势进行了总结.     

非球面碳化硅反射镜往复式磨削面形精度建模及仿真

为优化圆弧面砂轮磨削非球面碳化硅反射镜的加工效果,基于往复式磨削对非球面反射镜的残余高度进行建模,通过残余高度与面形精度的几何关系,建立面形精度预测模型并进行仿真分析。面形精度模型仿真结果表明:随截圆弧长增加或倾角增大,面形精度降低;随砂轮基圆半径增加或砂轮圆弧半径增加,面形精度提高。其中,截圆弧长和砂轮基圆半径对面形精度影响较大。      

冷轧钢渗碳处理后的ELID磨削效果及加工表面硬度实验研究

本文采用在线电解修整磨削技术,对经渗碳处理后的冷轧钢进行超精密镜面磨削试验,获得表面粗糙度达Ra6～8 nm的加工表面.实验结果表明:采用微细粒度、高硬度铸铁基金刚石砂轮、提高砂轮线速度和减小磨削深度可有效地提高表面质量,降低表面粗糙度;磨削过程中,砂轮线速度、磨削深度、磨削液是影响加工表面质量的主要因素.     

Ultra-precision grinding of optical glass lenses with La-doped CeO2 slurry

Higher accuracy and more efficient production of large aperture glass lenses is increasingly required for high-resolution imaging devices. These glass lenses are typically manufactured by both ultra-precision grinding and polishing. However, prolonged polishing deteriorates the lens shape accuracy and diminishes productivity. In order to reduce the required amount of polishing or even obtain a polish-free fine surface, chemical action-assisted ultra-precision grinding using La-doped CeO₂ slurry is proposed and its effectiveness is experimentally evaluated. The results show that the proposed grinding method successfully provides a high-quality surface comparable to a polished surface and results in five times higher productively than conventional grinding.     

超精密晶圆减薄砂轮及减薄磨削装备研究进展

在芯片制程的后道阶段,通过超精密晶圆减薄工艺可以有效减小芯片封装体积,导通电阻,改善芯片的热扩散效率,提高其电气性能、力学性能。目前的主流工艺通过超细粒度金刚石砂轮和高稳定性超精密减薄设备对晶圆进行减薄,可实现大尺寸晶圆的高精度、高效率、高稳定性无损伤表面加工。重点综述了目前超精密晶圆减薄砂轮的研究进展,在磨料方面综述了机械磨削用硬磨料和化学机械磨削用软磨料的研究现状,包括泡沫化金刚石、金刚石团聚磨料、表面微刃金刚石的制备方法及磨削性能,同时归纳总结了软磨料砂轮的化学机械磨削机理及材料去除模型。在结合剂研究方面,综述了金属、树脂和陶瓷3种结合剂的优缺点,以及在晶圆减薄砂轮上的应用,重点综述了目前在改善陶瓷结合剂的本征力学强度及与金刚石之间的界面润湿性方面的研究进展。在晶圆减薄超细粒度金刚石砂轮制备方面,由于微纳金刚石的表面能较大,采用传统工艺制备砂轮会导致磨料发生团聚,影响加工质量。在此基础上,总结论述了溶胶–凝胶法、高分子网络凝胶法、电泳沉积法、凝胶注模法、结构化砂轮等新型工艺方法在超细粒度砂轮制备方面的应用研究,同时还综述了目前不同的晶圆减薄工艺及超精密减薄设备的研究进展,并指出未来半导体加工工具及装备的发展方向。     

应用ELID技术进行微晶玻璃超精密磨削

由于微晶玻璃具有优良的物理、机械性能，在光学等领域得到了越来越多的应用。ELID磨削利用在线．电解的方法修整超细粒度的金刚石砂轮，可以有效地实现硬脆材料的超精密加工。本文将ELID磨削技术应用于微晶玻璃的超精密加工，通过改进ELID磨削的关键技术，包括砂轮电火花整形、电解修整电源和ELID磨削液的改进，实现了微晶玻璃的超精密磨削加工，同时通过采用原子力显微镜对不同磨削参数下的工件表面进行分析，以保证在塑性状态下对微晶玻璃进行磨削。因此提高了ELID磨削的质量。获得了Ra2．308nm的较好表面质量。     

在线电解修整(ELID)超精密磨削中的金刚石磨具特性研究

ELID(Electrolytic In-process Dressing)磨削技术是在电化学加工、电解磨削原理基础上发展起来的一项磨削新技术,主要用于硬脆材料超精密磨削过程中金属基结合剂超硬微细磨粒砂轮的在线修整.本文以金刚石微粉砂轮在线电解修整(ELID)磨削氮化硅陶瓷为例,着重研究了磨具特性对硬脆材料超精密磨削过程的影响.研究表明,磨具组织沿砂轮圆周的不均匀性将会导致砂轮表面钝化膜状态的不一致,这将直接影响砂轮局部参与切削的磨粒数量,影响单个磨料的实际磨削厚度.这首先将对工件表面的磨削质量,特别是对表面粗糙度产生直接影响,同时也非常不利于实现材料的高效去除.     

半球谐振子曲面加工干涉分析及其超精密磨削工艺

半球谐振子作为半球谐振陀螺的核心部件,其加工精度和表面质量直接影响半球谐振陀螺的工作精度和使用寿命。为解决半球谐振子加工难题,提高半球谐振陀螺的性能,从半球谐振子的结构特征出发,对谐振子加工过程中的干涉进行理论分析;再根据球头砂轮磨削区域分布的特点进行磨削轨迹规划,确定谐振子不同磨削阶段球头砂轮的最佳转角;最后在自研的半球谐振子超精密磨削机床上进行加工实验。超精密磨削后的谐振子表面粗糙度（Ra值）由0.6158 μm提升至0.0402 μm,面形精度（PV值）由4.5904 μm提升至0.3390 μm;经磁流变抛光后谐振子表面粗糙度（Ra值）进一步提高至0.0032 μm。研究表明:采用轨迹规划后的磨削工艺可避免砂轮与工件间的干涉,并加工出高质量的半球谐振子零件。      

Fabrication of hexagonally arrayed micro-structures with axially symmetrical surface profile by tri-axial excimer laser scanning

This paper presents an excimer laser contour scanning method for achieving hexagonally arrayed micro-structures with an axially symmetrical surface profile. It utilizes a specially designed contour mask for projected laser scanning along three different directions separated by 120° on the surface of a sample. Through rigorous analysis, a new contour mask design method is proposed which guarantees not only the profile accuracy but also the axial-symmetry of machined micro-structures. Experiments have been carried out using a 248 nm KrF excimer laser micromachining system. Hexagonal arrays of micro-lenses with an aperture size of 100 μm in diameter and a maximum sag height from 15 to 30 μm are successfully produced using designed contour masks. The machined profile accuracy is better than ±0.5 μm within most of the central area of lens aperture. The flexibility on machined surface profile and its machining accuracy allow new types of micro-lens arrays with specific optical functions and new applications in the future.     

光学玻璃非球面延性域磨削研究

文章利用相关公式计算光学玻璃的临界磨削深度,以及工件速度、砂轮速度、磨粒粒度、磨削深度等对它的影响,分析利用MK9025曲线磨床在延性域状态下加工非球面或者球面的可能性.然后,采用金属基金刚石微粉砂轮,选择合适的磨削用量,利用MasterCAM自动生成加工程序,在MK9025数控光学曲线磨床上进行椭球面磨削实验,得到了较高的工件尺寸精度和较光洁的表面质量,通过实验验证了利用MK9025数控光学曲线磨床进行非球面光学零件精密磨削的可能性,为实际生产提供了现实依据.