The farmer and the cowman should be friends: An attempt at reconciliation with Batson, Coke, and Pych.

R. L. Archer et al (see record 1982-05783-001) suggested that high dispositional empathy and socially evaluative circumstances be added to the 2-stage model of empathically-mediated helping of J. S. Coke et al (see record 1980-00984-001). C. D. Batson et al (1983) responded with 2 lines of argument against this. To the 1st of their arguments, that the original model will apply to Ss low as well as high in dispositional empathy, the present author replies that both hypotheses (theirs and his) await an adequate test. To the 2nd, that the success of the model in experimental contexts lacking in social evaluation is well-demonstrated, the author replies that those experimental paradigms may also have socially evaluative aspects. A reconciliation based on shared beliefs that the 2-stage model has potential and deserves more investigation is also explored. (11 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Limits on the two-stage model of empathic mediation of helping: A reply to Archer, Diaz-Loving, Gollwitzer, Davis, and Foushee.

R. L. Archer et al (1981) suggested that high-dispositional empathy and socially evaluative circumstances must be added as necessary limiting conditions to the J. S. Coke et al (1978) 2-stage model of the perspective-taking/empathy/helping relationship. It is argued that this suggestion is not appropriate. Concerning the 1st limitation, it is suggested that the 2-stage model will apply to Ss low as well as high in dispositional empathy, if the empathy-inducing conditions are sufficiently strong. To the present authors' knowledge, this possibility has not been adequately tested. Concerning the 2nd limitation, there is clear evidence that the presence of social evaluation is not a necessary condition for increased empathic emotion to lead to increased helping. Thus, this limiting condition should be dropped. (6 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Negative-state relief and the empathy—altruism hypothesis.

Tested the suggestion of R. B. Cialdini et al (see record 1987-21901-001) that the motivation to help associated with empathic emotion is directed toward the egoistic goal of negative-state relief, not toward the altruistic goal of relieving the victim's distress. To test this suggestion, we led empathically aroused Ss to anticipate an imminent mood-enhancing experience. We reasoned that if the motivation to help associated with empathy were directed toward the goal of negative-state relief, then empathically aroused individuals who anticipate mood-enhancement should help less than those who do not. Study 1 verified the effectiveness of our anticipated mood-enhancement manipulation; results indicated that this manipulation could serve as an effective source of negative-state relief. Results of Studies 2 and 3, in which empathy was either measured or manipulated, indicated that the rate of helping among high-empathy Ss was no lower when they anticipated mood enhancement than when they did not. Regardless of anticipated mood enhancement, high-empathy Ss helped more than low-empathy Ss. Results support the empathy–altruism hypothesis. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Vicarious anxiety: A systematic evaluation of a vicarious threat to self-esteem.

Investigated in 3 studies, Ss' state anxiety arousal in response to an in vivo vicarious threat to self-esteem. In Studies 1 and 2, a total of 70 undergraduates were exposed to a guest speaker who provided the anxiety manipulation. All Ss completed R. Hogan's empathy scale (see record 1969-12966-001), the Adult Norwicki-Strickland Internal–External Control Scale, and the State–Trait Anxiety Inventory. In addition, Ss in Study 2 also completed the Defense Mechanism Inventory. Inboth Studies, correlation and median split analyses indicated that high empathic and low trait anxious Ss reported elevated state anxiety in response to the vicarious threat. When Ss were matched on initial state anxiety, high empathy Ss were found to have experienced vicarious anxiety, whereas Ss low on empathy did not. In addition to replicating Study 1, Study 2 found that the Helplessness factor of locus of control was significantly negatively related to empathy, and the cognitive reappraisal styles of reversal (denial, reaction formation) and projection were related to state anxiety decreases. Study 3 with 14 undergraduates provided evidence for the absence of a confound. (36 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of paced respiration and expectations on physiological and psychological responses to threat.

While waiting to receive electric shocks, 105 male undergraduates either (a) regulated their breathing at half the normal rate, (b) regulated their breathing at the normal rate, or (c) did not regulate their breathing rate. Half of the Ss in each breathing condition were told that their breathing task would aid them in relaxing, whereas the other half were not given that expectation. Ss in a no-threat condition were not threatened with shocks, did not regulate their breathing, and were not provided with expectations. Results indicate that slowing respiration rate reduced physiological arousal as measured by skin resistance and finger pulse volume (but not heart rate) and reduced self-reports of anxiety. Expectations did not influence arousal. These data provide evidence for the effectiveness of paced respiration as a coping strategy, and they resolve the conflicting findings of previous investigations (i.e., those of V. A. Harris et al, see PA, Vol 57:5205; and those of D. S. Holmes et al, see PA, Vol 61:453). (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Motivational biases in causal attributions of arousal.

Two studies hypothesized that the desire to seek ambiguity as to the cause of a particular state of arousal will increase if either that arousal state or its source is potentially threatening to self-esteem. In Exp I, 22 high- and 21 low-sex-guilt male undergraduates (as determined by the Mosher Forced Choice Sex Guilt Inventory) were shown either an arousing erotic movie or a nonarousing movie; in Exp II, 28 high- and 28 low-guilt females were led to believe that they were very aroused by pictures of nude men. Ambiguity was introduced into both situations by means of a bogus, nonthreatening, alternative arousal source (a placebo). Results indicate that high-guilt Ss were actively involved in the process of determining which source was arousing them. More importantly, this involvement appeared to be motivated by ego-defensiveness. In both experiments, when high-guilt Ss were confronted by an erotic stimulus, they chose to attribute arousal to the bogus source—and thus create ambiguity as to the actual cause and nature of their arousal—more than did low-guilt Ss. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social evaluation and the empathy–altruism hypothesis.

Tested the claim of R. L. Archer et al (see record 1982-05783-001) that empathy leads to increased helping only under socially evaluative circumstances. In Exp I, 22 female undergraduates were led to believe that no one (including the person in need) would ever know if they declined to help. In this situation, which was designed to be devoid of the potential for negative social evaluation for not helping, there was still a positive relationship between self-reported empathic emotion and offering help. In Exp II, empathy (low vs high) and social evaluation (low vs high) were manipulated with 32 Ss. Once again there was a positive relationship between empathy and offering help when the potential for social evaluation was low as well as high. Results of both studies suggest that the motivation to help evoked by empathy is not egoistic motivation to avoid negative social evaluation. Instead, the observed pattern was what would be expected if empathy evokes altruistic motivation to reduce the victim's need. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

On sending artifact in search of artifact: Reply to McDonald, Harris, and Maher.

Two studies are reported that show the P. J. McDonald et al (see record 1983-25674-001) critique of the present authors' (see record 1981-25503-001) earlier explanation for the arousal–self-awareness link to be mistaken. In Study 1 with 57 Ss, arousal-induced attention to self was demonstrated in a field setting devoid of any of the artifactual covariates of arousal induction suggested by McDonald et al. In Study 2, a replication of the McDonald et al experiment was conducted in which a crucial manipulation check was included; their study was burdened by the very artifact they claimed might exist in the present authors'. Slow running created self-focus through unusualness and embarrassment, whereas fast running led to self-focus via arousal. (9 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Empathy and ego development": Correction.

Reports an error in the original article by A. F. Carlozzi et al (Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1983[Jan], Vol 30[1], 113-116). A sentence was omitted on page 115. The missing sentence is provided. (The following abstract of this article originally appeared in record 1983-10448-001.) Examined the relationship between empathy and ego development to determine whether, as J. Loevinger (1976) suggested, empathy is characteristic of higher levels of ego development. 51 undergraduates (dormitory advisors) completed the Affective Sensitivity Scale (a measure of empathy) and the Loevinger Sentence Completion Test (a measure of ego development). Analysis of test scores indicated that Ss at higher levels of ego development (I-3/4 and above) had significantly higher empathy scores than did those at lower ego levels. Findings have implications for the selection and training of individuals to serve in counseling or quasi-counseling roles. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of self-esteem manipulation on arousal and reactions to sad models in depressed and nondepressed college students.

24 depressed and 24 nondepressed college students were given spurious feedback, either positive or negative, about the results of personality tests. They then watched a film of an intensive encounter group. Psychophysiological reactions to both feedback and observation of sad film models were recorded. Depressed Ss showed greater arousal than nondepressed Ss only after negative feedback. Depressed Ss reacted emotionally to the sad models after negative feedback; nondepressed Ss, after positive feedback. Arousal results indicate that depressed Ss were particularly reactive to a "loss" of self-esteem. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Empathic mediation of helping: A two-stage model.

Proposes a 2-stage model of empathic mediation of helping behavior, which holds that taking the perspective of a person in need increases empathic emotion; this in turn increases helping. Ss in 2 experiments learned of another person's need from taped radio broadcasts and were subsequently given an opportunity to offer help to that person. The experiments used different strategies for manipulating empathic emotional response to the other's plight. In Exp I, using 44 male and female undergraduates, the empathic emotion of some Ss was experimentally reduced by a misattribution of arousal technique; in Exp II, using 33 female undergraduates, the empathic emotion of some Ss was experimentally increased by a false feedback of arousal technique. Results of each experiment support the proposed model. Ss who experienced the most empathic emotion also offered the most help. Results of Exp I indicate that perspective taking did not directly affect helping; it affected helping only through its effect on empathic emotion. Motivational implications are discussed. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Comparison of age-extended norms for the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale—Revised in patients with Alzheimer's disease.

Recent studies by R. J. Ivnik et al (see record 1993-04116-001), J. F. Malec et al (see record 1993-04120-001), and J. J. Ryan et al (see record 1991-08835-001) have provided age-extended norms for the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale—Revised (WAIS—R). The current study compared IQ scores based on these newer age-extended norms in 216 elderly Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients. Results showed that when the norms from Ryan et al were used, IQ scores were consistently the same as or higher than when WAIS—R manual norms were used. When the norms provided by Ivnik et al and Malec et al were used, IQ scores tended to be lower than WAIS—R manual norms for younger patients with more intellectual impairment. Results illustrate the importance of reporting the normative sample upon which IQ test scores for older adults are based and provide guidelines for selecting which set of age-extended WAIS—R norms to use with cognitively impaired elderly Ss. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Autonomic arousal, interpersonal climate, and orality.

Electrodermal responses in 34 male undergraduates who gave at least 4 oral-dependent Rorschach responses or no more than 2 such responses were assessed both before and after Ss had either a warm, friendly interaction or a cold, unfriendly interaction with a confederate. Following a 10-min interaction, there was a significant 3-way interaction (Period?×?Condition?×?Orality) in tonic conductance. Analysis produced one simple effect: Highly oral Ss responded differentially to warm or cold treatment by the confederate. Three groups—nonorals in either condition and orals in the cold condition—increased in physiological arousal over time. Only the highly oral Ss interacting with the warm confederate showed no such increase in arousal, presumably because the presence of a friendly other person inhibits physiological activation. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Is empathic emotion a source of altruistic motivation?

Tested the hypothesis that empathy leads to altruistic rather than egoistic motivation to help. 44 female college students watched another female undergraduate receive electric shocks and were then given a chance to help her by taking the remaining shocks themselves. In each of 2 experiments, Ss' empathic emotion (low vs high) and their ease of escape from continuing to watch the victim suffer if they did not help (easy vs difficult) were manipulated in a 2?×?2 design. It was reasoned that if empathy led to altruistic motivation, Ss feeling a high degree of empathy for the victim should be as ready to help when escape without helping was easy as when it was difficult. But if empathy led to egoistic motivation, Ss feeling empathy should be more ready to help when escape was difficult than when it was easy. Results followed the former pattern when empathy was high and the latter pattern when empathy was low, supporting the hypothesis that empathy leads to altruistic rather than egoistic motivation to help. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Influence of self-reported distress and empathy on egoistic versus altruistic motivation to help.

Proposed that a distinction be made between 2 emotional responses to seeing another person suffer—personal distress and empathy—and that these 2 emotions lead to 2 different kinds of motivation to help: Personal distress leads to egoistic motivation; empathy, to altruistic motivation. These distinctions were tested in 3 studies, each using 10 male and 10 female undergraduates. Across the 3 studies, factor analysis of Ss' self-reported emotional response indicated that feelings of personal distress and empathy, although positively correlated, were experienced as qualitatively distinct. The pattern of helping in Studies 1 and 2 indicated that a predominance of personal distress led to egoistic motivation, whereas a predominance of empathy led to altruistic motivation. In Study 3, the cost of helping was made especially high. Results suggest an important qualification on the link between empathic emotion and altruistic motivation: Ss reporting a predominance of empathy displayed an egoistic pattern of helping. Apparently, making helping costly evoked self-concern, which overrode any altruistic impulse produced by feeling empathy. (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Impact of context on spontaneous trait and situational attributions.

The role of background information in the generation of spontaneous inferences regarding a target's behavior was examined. Ss received background information designed to facilitate dispositional inferences, information to facilitate situational inferences, or no background information. All Ss memorized a series of digit lists. After each list, a short paragraph of background information and a single sentence were presented. Cognitive capacity for processing the paragraphs and sentences was manipulated by presenting either difficult or easy digit lists. Cued recall revealed that dispositional background information facilitated trait inferences but did not affect situational inferences. Similarly, situational information facilitated situational inferences about the actor's behavior but had no impact on trait inferences. The ability of dispositional information to facilitate trait-cued recall was not influenced by Ss' cognitive capacity, whereas situational information boosted situational-cued recall only when Ss enjoyed ample capacity. The relevance of this evidence to the 3-stage model of person perception proposed by D. T. Gilbert, B. W. Pelham, and D. S. Krull (see record 1988-26492-001) is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of contingent and noncontingent feedback and subject expectancies on electoencephalogram biofeedback training.

80 undergraduates either received auditory feedback contingent on their production of alpha or they received noncontingent feedback. In addition, Ss were led to expect either a positive or a negative experience. Ss who received contingent feedback produced significantly more alpha than Ss who received noncontingent feedback, but the type of feedback did not seem related to mood. Instead, Ss led to expect a positive experience reported significant reductions in anxiety. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of sex guilt, repression, sexual "arousability," and sexual experience on female sexual arousal during erotica and fantasy.

Hypothesized that, among women who were asked to fantasize about sex, erotic preexposure would facilitate arousal during the fantasy, and arousal would be greater among those who had less sex guilt, those who were more arousable, those who were more experienced, and sensitizers. 62 female Ss (aged 18–53 yrs) were randomly assigned to view either an erotic or a nonerotic videotape. All Ss then imagined and wrote out a sexual fantasy. Sexual arousal was measured subjectively by self-report ratings and physiologically by continuous vaginal photoplethysmograph recording. Ss high in sex guilt reported less arousal but showed significantly greater physiological arousal during the erotic videotape than did Ss low in sex guilt. For the high sex-guilt Ss, the erotic videotape facilitated physiological arousal during fantasy. Ss low in sexual arousability and low in sexual experience followed a similar pattern. No significant differences were found for repression-sensitization. Results point toward a pattern of behavioral inhibition that facilitates increased response to forbidden erotica. (36 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Interactive effects of test anxiety, test difficulty, and feedback.

Examined interactive effects of item difficulty, test anxiety, and failure feedback in a study of 67 undergraduates (mean age 20.1 yrs) using multiple-choice verbal aptitude items. Ss' levels of test anxiety were measured on the Achievement Anxiety Test and the Test Anxiety Scale. Ss were then randomly assigned to receive either a hard or an easy test either with or without immediate feedback. Results indicate that ability estimates can be affected in complex ways by the examinee's anxiety level. The least anxious Ss in the sample did best on a very hard test, and moderately anxious Ss did best on an easy test, whereas the most anxious Ss did poorly on both tests. In addition, it was found that immediate feedback improved performance, especially for Ss given an easy test. (13 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Alphabetic sequence decisions for letter pairs with separations of one to three letters.

Tested the alphabet storage and retrieval theory of D. Klahr et al (1983) for applicability to letter-order decisions. Ss judged whether letter pairs with sequential separations of 1, 2, or 3 letters were in correct or incorrect order. Ss made decisions either in a continuous- or intermittent-attention mode. The results of alphabetic letter-order decisions with a letter separation of 1 were in conformance with the theory of Klahr et al in both attention modes. However, at letter separations of 2 and 3 letters, Ss made decisions that were more compatible with a symbolic-distance mechanism. Speculation on how Ss could make alphabetic-order decisions in either a memory-consultation or a symbolic-distance manner is made. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)