Modification of pectin polysaccharides during ripening of postharvest banana fruit

Pectin is one of the major components of the primary cellular walls and middle lamella in plant tissues. In this study, water-soluble pectin (WSP) and acid-soluble pectin (ASP) fractions were isolated from pulp tissues of banana fruit at various ripening stages. Their monosaccharide compositions, glycosyl linkages and molecular mass distributions were evaluated. As ripening progressed, fruit firmness decreased rapidly, which was associated with the increase in the WSP content and the decrease in the ASP content. Meanwhile, the molecular mass distributions of WSP and ASP fractions exhibited a downshift tendency, indicating the disassembly of pectin polysaccharides. Moreover, galactose and galacturonic acid as the major monosaccharide compositions of pectin polysaccharides increased in WSP fraction but decreased in ASP fraction during fruit softening. GC–MS analysis further revealed that pectin polysaccharide had a 1,4-linked galactan/galacturonan backbone with different types of branching and terminal linkages in WSP and ASP fractions. During banana fruit ripening, the amount of 1,4-linked Galp residues of ASP fraction decreased significantly whereas 1,3,6-linked Galp, 1,2-linked Manp and 4-linked Araf residues disappeared, which was related to depolymerization of pectin polysaccharides. Overall, the study indicated that the modifications in polysaccharide compositions and glycosyl linkages, reduced molecular mass distributions and enhanced depolymerization of pectin fraction during banana ripening were responsible for fruit softening.     

Pectin Transitions During Blueberry Fruit Development and Ripening

Quantitative and qualitative changes in the pectin composition of “Bluetta” blueberries were determined during fruit development between 30 and 57 days after full bloom. The contribution of alcohol insoluble solids (AIS) to the total fruit mass decreased threefold with maturation, while the pectin contribution decreased twofold in the fruits. Within the AIS fractions during ripening there was a reduction in dilute alkali soluble pectin (DASP) from about 65% to 20% of the AIS. A corresponding increase was observed in water soluble pectin (WSP), from about 20% to 60%, while chelator soluble pectin (CSP) increased slightly.     

DEVELOPMENT OF POLYGALACTURONASE ACTIVITY AND SOLUBILIZATION OF PECTIN IN PEACHES DURING RIPENING

SUMMARY –Polygalacturonase activity, water-soluble pectin, total pectin, molecular weight distribution of water-soluble pectin, and fruit firmness were determined during ripening of freestone peaches. Polygalacturonase activity was not present in unripe peaches, but it developed during both tree and postharvest ripening. The development of activity paralleled the formation of water-soluble pectin characteristic of freestone peaches. Fruit firmness began to decrease before polygalac-turonase was detected, but the peaches softened rapidly after the appearance of the enzyme. Application of gel filtration revealed that the molecular weights of peach pectin range from about 100,000 to several million and decrease progressively during ripening. The results indicate a role for polygalacturonase in pectin solubilization during ripening of peaches.     

氯吡苯脲浸泡处理延缓采后芒果成熟和软化的生理机制

以采后‘贵妃’芒果为试材,使用10 mg/L氯吡苯脲（forchlorfenuron,CPPU）溶液对果实浸泡处理10 min,晾干后在室温（25 ℃）条件下贮藏8 d,研究CPPU浸泡处理对芒果果实贮藏期间成熟与软化相关生理指标的影响。结果显示：CPPU浸泡处理明显抑制了芒果果实的呼吸作用并推迟了果肉色泽、硬度、可溶性固形物质量分数和可滴定酸质量分数的变化;CPPU浸泡处理有效抑制了果实1-氨基环丙烷-1-羧酸合成酶和1-氨基环丙烷-1-羧酸氧化酶活性,导致乙烯释放量降低;此外,CPPU浸泡处理显著抑制了果实多聚半乳糖醛酸酶、果胶甲酯酶、β-半乳糖苷酶等果胶水解酶活性变化,并较大程度抑制了果胶多糖的增溶与解聚作用,故而延缓了果实的软化进程。结论：CPPU浸泡处理能有效延缓采后芒果果实的成熟与软化,从而延长果实货架寿命。     

Ethephon‐induced fractional changes of pectic polysaccharides in developing cape gooseberry (Physalis peruviana L) fruits

Pectic polysaccharides extracted from fruit tissue of cape gooseberry (Physalis peruviana L) at different maturity levels were fractionated and analyzed for galacturonic acid backbone molecules. Preharvest spray of the fruits at 7 days old with ethephon resulted in a higher accumulation of water‐soluble and oxalate‐soluble pectic fractions than non‐treated fruits, while this treatment effectively enhanced the polygalacturonase enzyme activity necessary for maintenance of pectin degradation. Treatment with ethephon not only enhanced the solubilization rate but also resulted in a net increase in total pectic polymer content in developing cape gooseberry fruits. Copyright © 2005 Society of Chemical Industry     

Pectic polysaccharides during ripening of mango (Mangifera indica L)

The content of pectin decreased from 2.0 to 0.7% fresh weight (FW) and there was a concomitant increase in free galacturonic acid from 36 to 168 mg% FW during ripening of mango. Ion exchange chromatography on DEAE/cellulose resolved the pectic fraction into seven distinct peaks, with all of them showing a drastic decrease in pectin content and molecular weight as fruit ripening progressed, which indicated significant depolymerisation in vivo. Fraction I appeared to be an arabinogalactan‐type polymer, while fractions II and III were heterogalacturonans containing more than 60% galacturonic acid. Hydrolases implicated in pectin depolymerisation were polygalacturonase (PG), pectin methyl esterase (PME), galactanase, arabinanase and β ‐galactosidase. They all showed a climacteric peak in activity during ripening, except for PME which showed a continuous decrease in activity after an initial increase. These results are discussed in the light of fruit softening during ripening. Copyright © 2003 Society of Chemical Industry     

Gel Strength and Sensory Attributes of Fig (Ficus carica) Jams and Preserves as Influenced by Ripeness

ABSTRACT: In this article, gel strength and sensory attributes of jams and preserves made from figs at different stages of ripeness were investigated. Special emphasis was put on investigating the relationship of these attributes and pectin composition during ripening. Jams were produced with the addition of sugars and commercial pectin. In the production of preserves, no additional sugars or commercial pectin were used. Basic physicochemical properties (total solids, sugars, pH, total acidity) of figs were determined at all stages of ripeness. Total solids, sugars, and pH value increased in figs during ripening. To better understand the role of fig pectin in gel formation, the amount of 3 pectin fractions, soluble in water (PFW), soluble in oxalate (PFO), and soluble in alkali (PFA), as well as their gel-forming abilities were determined. The most abundant pectin fraction in figs was found to be PFO. Its amount was not influenced by the stage of ripeness. The amount of PFW and PFA decreased with increased ripeness of the fruit. Strength of gels formed with PFW and PFA isolated at different stages of ripeness followed the same trend. Gels made with PFO were remarkably softer in comparison with other gels. While strength of jams was not influenced by the ripeness of fig fruits, the strength of preserves decreased with increased ripeness of the fruit. The stage of ripeness did not have a significant influence on sensory attributes of jams or preserves. However, the type of product had a significant influence on taste, firmness, and color. Jams scored higher than preserves when these 3 attributes were evaluated.     

Changes in elements,pectic substances and organic acids during development of boysenberry fruit

Changes in elements, pectic fractions, and organic acids during the development of boysenberries are described. Fruit were grouped into nine developmental stages on the basis of fresh weight and anthocyanin content. Stages 1–5 covered the earliest period of development (Stage 1 fresh weight=1.34 g), marked by fruit expansion and little accumulation of anthocyanin, whereas during Stages 6–9, when ripening occurred, fruit expansion ceased and anthocyanin content increased greatly. Most elements (except B and Na) fell into two very distinct groups. Over the course of development the content of Ca, Mn and Sr per fruit varied bimodally and decreased after the cessation of fruit growth, indicating a net efflux from the fruit. In contrast, K, Mg, Fe, Cu, Zn, P and S, which were all very significantly intercorrelated (P<0.01), increased approximately linearly and thus showed a net influx into the fruit. The decrease in Ca, Mn and Sr content per fruit coincided with a decrease in Ca pectate and total pectin, and a greatly increased proportion of cold water-soluble pectin. Three acids, citric, malic and succinic, were detectable, with citric acid predominant. The changing content of malic acid paralleled that of Ca. The observed patterns of change suggested an increasing phloem/xylem influx ratio during fruit enlargement, with a subsequent loss of binding capacity in the cell-wall, enabling remobilization of wall-bound elements. The results imply that the Ca level in the fruit is important in the ripening of bramble fruit.     

Physiological and biochemical response of harvested plum fruit to oxalic acid during ripening or shelf-life

The effect of oxalic acid application on plum fruit (Prunus salicina cv. ‘Damili’) ripening properties during storage or shelf-life was determined. The fruits were dipped for 3 min in solutions containing 5 mmol/L oxalic acid and then were packed into polyethylene bags and stored at 25 °C for 12 days, or at 2 °C for 20 days and subsequently at 25 °C for 12 days. Ethylene production, fruit firmness, contents of pectin and anthocyanin, specific activities of polygalacturonase (PG), pectin methylesterase (PME) and phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL), and chlorophyll fluorescence (Fv/Fm) were measured. The application of oxalic acid reduced ethylene production and delayed softening of plum fruit. The inhibition of softening was associated with decreased PG and PME activities; that is, the retardation of pectin solubilization/degradation. During storage or shelf-life, flesh reddening and anthocyanin synthesis were significantly inhibited in oxalic acid-treated plum fruit, accompanied with decreased PAL activity. Furthermore, it was found that variable:maximalchlorophyll fluorescence (Fv/Fm), an indicator of ripening, senescence or stress injury of fruit and vegetable, decreased much more slowly in oxalic-treated plum fruits than in control fruits. Thus, oxalic acid treatment can be an effective means to extend the shelf life of plum fruit.     

Mango ripening: changes in cell wall constituents in relation to textural softening

Ripening of mango (Mangifera indica L., cv. Alphonso) fruit is characterized by a series of biochemical changes resulting in gradual textural softening. From unripe to ripe stage, the starch content came down from 18% to 0.1%; pectin from 1.9% to 0.5%; cellulose from 2% to 0.9% and hemicelluloses from 0.8% to 0.2%. Concomitantly, the total soluble solids increased from 7% to 20%, total soluble sugars from 1% to 15% and pH increased from 2.8 to 5.1. The increase in activity of several of the carbohydrate‐degrading enzymes, which resulted in solubilization of the various polysaccharide fractions, correlated with fruit‐softening phenomenon. Efficient distribution of ¹⁴C‐starch into glucose, fructose and sucrose revealed considerable sugar interconversions indicating active gluconeogenesis during mango fruit ripening. Copyright © 2005 Society of Chemical Industry     

Modification of hemicellulose polysaccharides during ripening of postharvest banana fruit

Alcohol-insoluble residues (AIRs) from postharvest banana fruits at five ripening stages were extracted and isolated. The AIR was fractionated with 1 M KOH or 4 M KOH to obtain hemicellulose polysaccharides 1 (HC1) and 2 (HC2), respectively, and their content, molecular-mass, monosaccharide composition and glycosidic linkages were evaluated. HC1 yield decreased significantly from 126.95 to 21.14 mg/g on fresh weight basis during fruit ripening, but HC2 yield increased and then decreased. Concomitantly, the molecular-mass of HC1 and HC2 decreased obviously, indicating that depolymerization occurred. Moreover, the major monosaccharide compositions were identified as glucose and xylose. The GC–MS analysis further revealed that HC1 and HC2 had a 1,4-linked glucose backbone. During fruit ripening, the molar percentage of 1,4-linked Glcp residues increased in HC1, but decreased slightly in HC2. Overall, this study indicated that the modification and depolymerization of hemicellulose polysaccharides were responsible for banana fruit softening.     

Canning-Induced Fruit Softening and Cell Wall Pectin Solubilization in the 'Patterson' Apricot

The canning of slightly immature ‘Patterson’ apricot fruits leads to an immediate softening of the halves to the extent that many are of unacceptable texture. This softening occurs in conjunction with a substantial solubilization of uronic acid-, arabinose-, and galactose-rich (presumably pectic) polysaccharide material into the canning liquid. The solubilization is not accompanied by pectin depolymerization suggesting that some process other than acid-catalyzed polymer hydrolysis is responsible for fruit softening during processing.     

硬溶质型桃果实成熟过程中细胞壁多糖降解特性及其相关酶研究

以硬溶质型桃‘晚湖景’为试材,研究细胞壁多糖降解以及细胞壁多糖降解相关酶对硬溶质型桃果实成熟软化的影响。结果表明:硬溶质型桃果实成熟过程中,CDTA-1果胶含量上升,两种Na2CO3溶性果胶含量在成熟末期减少率分别为22.5%和27.4%。KOH溶性果胶含量在整个成熟过程中变化不明显。果实CDTA、Na2CO3组分中果胶多糖主链的断裂、半纤维素和纤维素组分中阿拉伯糖和半乳糖的降解主要发生在成熟末期;β-半乳糖苷酶(β-Gal)与桃果实成熟软化启动密切相关,多聚半乳糖醛酸酶(PG)和纤维素酶(Cx)对桃果实成熟后期快速软化起重要作用。Na2CO3-1溶性果胶多糖的降解与硬溶质型果实采后软化密切相关,KOH-1、KOH-2半纤维素多糖的降解可能促进硬溶质型桃果实成熟软化进程,富含半乳糖醛酸的果胶多糖主链的断裂以及果胶、半纤维素、纤维素中阿拉伯糖、半乳糖等中性糖的降解都可能是果肉软化的重要因素,并有多种多糖降解酶参与其中。     

Isolation and characterisation of pectic substances from murta (Ugni molinae Turcz) fruits

Cell walls polysaccharides from murta fruit (Ugni molinae Turcz), an endemic Chilean species with relevant food uses, were fractionated by water, ammonium oxalate, hot diluted HCl and cold diluted NaOH extractions. The polysaccharide fractions were analysed for monosaccharide composition and physicochemical properties. Pectic substances were found in all extracts, but mainly in the oxalate and acid soluble fractions, in which they appear as homogalacturonan polymers. Murta pectin was further extracted by hot diluted acid treatment using industrial conditions, yielding 30% by weight of dry fruit. The polymer showed similar composition and physicochemical properties to those of commercial citrus pectin, presenting a galacturonic acid content of 70.9% (w/w), a molecular weight of 597 kDa, and a methoxylation degree of 57%. The FT-IR spectrum of murta pectin suggests the presence of ferulic acid residues on its structure and the NMR analysis confirmed the structure of this polysaccharide. It is concluded that murta fruit can be considered as a valuable source of high quality pectin.     

Effect of freeze–dried kefir culture on proteolysis in feta-type and whey-cheeses

The effect of freeze–dried kefir culture on the proteolysis of feta-type and whey-cheese was investigated. All nitrogen fractions increased during ripening. Although no significant differences were observed in total nitrogen (TN), the levels of water-soluble nitrogen (WSN), pH 4.4-soluble nitrogen (SN), 12% trichloroacetic acid-soluble nitrogen (TCA-SN) and phosphotungstic acid-soluble nitrogen (PTA-SN) were significantly higher in cheeses produced by freeze–dried kefir culture during the later stages of ripening. Content of total free amino acids (FAA) was significantly affected by freeze–dried kefir starter culture and it was continuously increased in kefir-cheese while, in rennet-cheese it was increased up to 30 days of ripening and then slightly decreased. On the other hand, FAA content continuously decreased in kefir-whey-cheese whereas it increased in whey-cheese. The cheese samples produced by freeze–dried kefir as starter culture were characterised as high-quality products during the preliminary sensory evaluation and they were accepted by the panel. Overall, the use of freeze–dried kefir suggested acceleration of cheese ripening and resulted in improved sensory characteristics.     

Developmental and Ripening-Related Effects on the Cell Wall of Pepino (Solanum muricatum) Fruit

Several cell wall components in ripening pepino fruit have been quantitatively and qualitatively characterised, with the aim of identifying their contributions to the loss of tissue firmness. Pepinos were graded into nine groups based on progressive, characteristic skin colour changes, previously shown to correspond with decreasing fruit firmness. While fruit softening began when the pepinos were still green but with newly acquired purple stripes, the first significant quantitative signs of cell wall modification (total pectin and hemicellulose content declining and CDTA-soluble pectin content increasing, on a fresh weight basis) were detectable later in ripening, when the fruit began to acquire yellow skin pigmentation. Gel fractionation studies demonstrated that there were increased levels of low-molecular-weight pectin and xyloglucan during pepino ripening. The change in molecular weight distribution of CDTA-soluble pectin occurred as fruit started to acquire yellow pigmentation, while xyloglucan polymers were modified at an earlier stage that coincided with the initial loss of firmness. © 1997 SCI.     

Pectic substances in developing and ripening plum fruits

The fresh weight of plum fruits increased throughout the growing season whilst the weight of ethanol insoluble material increased to a peak in the penultimate sample and then declined. Pectin content paralleled the change in weight of the insoluble residue. There were no significant changes in the proportional composition of monosaccharides in pectin or the total solids. Pectic substances were examined by gel permeation chromatography and high voltage electrophoresis. There was no evidence for extensive degradation of the pectic substances, but changes in the electrophoretic mobility were consistent with de-esterification during ripening.     

Biochemical changes during ripening of some sudanese date varieties

Changes in the chemical composition of three popular Sudanese varieties of date (Jawa, Bentamoda and Mishrig Wad Laggai) during ripening are described and are related to changes in texture and in the activities of various degradative enzymes in the fruit. Total invertase levels were high throughout maturation of the three varieties. Although the proportion of soluble enzyme increased during ripening solubilisation did not appear to influence the relative amounts of sucrose and reducing sugars in the ripening fruit. Both cellulase and polygalacturonase were absent or at low levels in the green fruit but displayed large increases in activity during ripening. This enhancement was reflected in a reduction in fruit firmness although little change in cellulose or pectin levels was apparent analytically until the final stage of ripening. Despite a considerable rise in pectinesterase activity during ripening no significant trend could be discerned in the degree of esterification of pectin suggesting that the enzyme is of minor importance in softening of these fruit.     

Changes in Chlorophyll and Pectin After Storage and Canning of Kiwifruit

Kiwifruit were harvested and stored at 0°C. Over a 92-day period fruit were removed from storage, ripened to 13° Brix by holding at 25°C, and canned as slices in a sugar syrup. Changes in the chlorophylls and pectic substances were measured after storage and canning. The concentration of total chlorophyll remained virtually constant during storage and ripening. During the canning process about 90% of the chlorophylls was degraded, the data fitting a first-order model better than a second-order model. The total pectin content increased by over 100% during storage and ripening but decreased significantly during canning. A significant inverse relationship between the firmness of unpeeled kiwifruit and the water-soluble, high-methoxyl pectin content was derived.     

SOFTENING AND BIOCHEMICAL CHANGES OF SAPOTE MAMEY FRUIT (POUTERIA SAPOTA) AT DIFFERENT DEVELOPMENT AND RIPENING STAGES

We investigated some of the physicochemical and biochemical factors associated with flesh softening of sapote mamey fruit during development and ripening. The activities of pectinmethylesterase (PME), polygalacturonase (PG) and β‐galactosidase (β‐GAL) enzymes were measured in fruits harvested at different development stages, and postharvest in two production seasons. The textural changes were most noticeable at the preclimacteric stage in ripening fruit. The water‐soluble pectin (WSP) increased at a different rate than firmness decreased. No correlation between PG or PME activity and changes in firmness was observed in ripening fruits, though a low correlation was seen between β‐GAL activity and softening in climacteric stage. Greatest loss of firmness occurred in climacteric stage. Fruit pulp softening was not dependent on a single enzyme activity.