Investigating geogrid-reinforced ballast: Experimental pull-out tests and discrete element modelling

This paper presents an evaluation of the interlocking behaviour of geogrid-reinforced railway ballast. Experimental large box pull-out tests were conducted to examine the interaction between ballast and a biaxial geogrid. The discrete element method (DEM) was then used to model the interaction between the ballast and the geogrid by simulating large box pull-out tests and comparing the findings with the experimental results. Four different shapes of clumps were used to represent each ballast particle in order to obtain an acceptable shape for modelling the railway ballast. The DEM simulation results were shown to provide good predictions of the pull-out resistance and to examine the effect of clump shape on both the pull-out resistance and the distribution of contact forces. Therefore, the calibrated geogrid model and the 8-ball tetrahedral clumps, used as ballast particles, hold much promise for investigating the interaction between geogrids and ballast, and thus, optimising performance.     

Experimental and numerical analysis of large scale pull out tests conducted on clays reinforced with geogrids encapsulated with coarse material

The pullout test is one of the methods commonly used to study pullout behavior of reinforcements. In the current research, large pullout tests (i.e. 100 × 60 × 60 cm) have been conducted to investigate the possibility of pullout resistance enhancement of clays reinforced with HDPE geogrid embedded in thin layers of sand. Pullout tests on clay–geogrid, sand–geogrid and clay–sand–geogrid samples have been conducted at normal pressures of 25, 50 and 100 kPa. Numerical modeling using finite element method has also been used to assess the adequacy of the box and geogrid sizes to minimize boundary and scale effects. Experimental results show that provision of thin sand layers around the reinforcement substantially enhances pullout resistance of clay soil under monotonic loading conditions and the effectiveness increases with increase in normal pressures. The improvement is more pronounced at higher normal pressures and an optimum sand layer thickness of 8 cm has been determined for maximum enhancement. Results of numerical analysis showed the adequacy of the box and geogrid length adopted as well as a relatively good agreement with experimental results.     

Performance of AC overlays using geogrids on PCC contraction joints

It is widely known that vertical displacements and strains occur on the joints and these cause defects on the asphalt concrete (AC) overlays on existing Portland cement concrete (PCC) pavements. Various approaches were introduced to minimize these defects. In this study, the effect of joint support formed using the geogrid material with grout mortar on the vertical displacement of PCC and the strain at the bottom of the AC layer. Produced layers were exposed to 1,186,000 Equivalent Single Axle Load (ESAL) in an APT (Accelerated Pavement Test) facility and the results were monitored. According to the obtained results, the use of AC overlay reduces vertical displacement in the PCC by 75%. When geogrid reinforced AC overlay was used, an additional reduction in displacement by 41.2% was achieved. Geogrid reinforcement reduced strain values formed at the bottom of the AC layer from 29.5% to 92.5%. The use of geogrid at joints instead of increasing the thickness of the AC layer from 50 to 80 mm resulted a more significant reduction in both strain and displacement. Besides, the usage of a geogrid interlayer instead of increasing the thickness of the AC layer also provided a significant cost reduction of 57.9% in overall cost.     

Shear behaviour of a geogrid-reinforced coarse-grained soil based on large-scale triaxial tests

In China, weathered mudstone geogrid-reinforced coarse-grained soil is used extensively for road embankments. However, the microstructure and disintegration process of weathered mudstone remain unclear. Furthermore, few studies have investigated the shear behaviour of this kind of geogrid-reinforced fill through large-scale triaxial tests against grain size effects. To bridge this gap, this study reports results from large scale consolidated undrained (CU) and consolidated drained (CD) triaxial tests as well as scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX), and disintegration tests on weathered mudstone geogrid-reinforced coarse-grained soil. EDX spectrograms and SEM images show that coarse grains disintegrate rapidly mainly owing to the high clay mineral content and loose microstructure. Therefore, a suitable disintegration time (∼15 days) is recommended for embankment sits. The shear behaviour of this geogrid-reinforced fill is investigated in detail through large-scale triaxial tests. The shear deformation tends toward strain hardening behaviour with an increase in the number of geogrid layers and the confining pressure. Geogrids significantly improve the apparent cohesive strength of coarse-grained soil. The pore water pressure is found to develop rapidly in the 0%–4% axial strain phase but dissipate slowly in the 4%–12% axial strain phase. During shear, the pore pressure coefficient A values of 0.2–0.4 are indicative of the partial saturation of specimens. Consequently, pore water pressure development is mainly attributed to the movement and rearrangement of coarse particles in coarse-grained soil. Experimental data show that the geogrid-reinforcement coefficients increase with the number of geogrid layers, and a 20-cm separation between geogrid layers is recommended for embankment construction sites. The number of geogrid layers influences the geogrid–soil interface’s mobilization and the slip surface type. Test results revealed three types of slip surfaces related to the failure shapes of specimens. Then, based on CU experimental data, the parameters of the Duncan–Chang constitutive model are discussed.     

Laboratory tests on the engineering properties of sensor-enabled geobelts (SEGB)

To measure geosynthetic reinforcement strains, sensor-enabled geobelts (SEGB) that perform the reinforcement and self-measurement functions were developed in this paper. The SEGB of high-density polyethylene (HDPE) filled with carbon black (CB) were fabricated by both the industry and the laboratory. To study the mechanical properties and tensoresistivity performance of the SEGB, in-isolation tests and in-soil tests were performed. Hot pyrocondensation pipes (HPP) were used to protect the SEGB against the influence of water. For the SEGB specimens developed in the laboratory, the optimal CB filler content was 47.5%. For the SEGB fabricated by the industry, the optimal CB content was slightly decreased compared to the SEGB fabricated in the laboratory. For the modified SEGB sealed with HPP, the strain at the fracture was improved, while its tensile stress and the frictional property of the geobelt-soil interfaces both decreased slightly. In the pull-out tests, the self-measurement function of the SEGB was proved to be effective for evaluating the deformation behavior of geosynthetic reinforcement. The results are helpful for further application of SEGB technology in engineering.     

Influence of cyclic tensile loading on pullout resistance of geogrids embedded in a compacted granular soil

This paper deals with some results of a wide experimental research carried out in order to study factors affecting cyclic and post-cyclic pullout behaviour of different geogrids embedded in a granular soil. The new test procedure developed (multistage pullout test) and the relative results are described. In particular, test results obtained using the constant rate of displacement (CRD) and the multistage pullout tests highlighted the influence of the different factors involved in the research (cyclic load amplitude and frequency, vertical confining stress, geogrid tensile stiffness and structure) both on the peak pullout resistance and on the peak apparent coefficient of friction mobilized at the interface.     

塑料土工格栅加筋土结构的振动台试验研究

对塑料土工格栅加筋土结构的缩尺比例模型进行了振动台试验研究。试验过程中,采用两组试验模型,一组测定筋材的动应力应变;一组测定土筋间的动似摩擦系数。试验结果表明：塑料土工格栅筋材在地震作用下最大动拉应力的分布与静拉应力的分布沿筋材的埋深大致相同,只是应力的值大小不同;地震作用下土筋间的动似摩擦系数是随地震加速度的增加而减小。据此,提出了加筋土结构在地震区的设计建议。     

Large-scale load capacity tests on a geosynthetic encased column

Stone columns have been used to minimize the settlement of embankments on soft soils but their use in very soft soils can become challenging, partly because of the low confinement provided by the surrounding soil. Geosynthetic encased columns (GECs) have been successfully used to enhance to reduce settlements of embankments on soft soils. This paper describes an investigation on the performance of encased columns constructed on a very soft soil using different types of encasement (three woven geotextiles with different values of tensile stiffness) and different column fill materials (sand, gravel and recycled construction and demolition waste, RCDW). The results of load capacity tests conducted on large-scale models constructed to simulate the different types of GECs indicate that the displacement method adopted during column installation can lead to an enhanced shear strength in the smear zone that develops within the very soft soil. In addition, breakage of the column fill material was found to affect the load-settlement response of gravel and RCDW columns. Furthermore, the excess pore water pressure generated in the surrounding soil during installation, was found to remain limited to radial distances smaller than three times the GEC diameter.     

Pullout tests conducted on clay reinforced with geogrid encapsulated in thin layers of sand

The interaction between reinforcement and backfill materials is a significant factor for analysis and design of reinforced earth structures which is simplified as pullout or direct shear resistance. This paper presents the results of pullout tests aimed at studying the interaction of clays reinforced with geogrids embedded in thin layers of sand. Pullout tests were conducted after modification of the large direct shear apparatus. Samples were prepared at optimum moisture content and maximum dry densities obtained from standard Proctor compaction tests. Tests were conducted on clay-geogrid, sand-geogrid and clay-sand-geogrid samples. A unidirectional geogrid with sand layer thicknesses of 6, 10 and 14 mm were used. Results revealed that encapsulating geogrids in thin layers of sand under pullout conditions enhances pullout resistance of reinforced clay. For the clay-sand-geogrid samples an optimum sand layer thickness of 10 mm was determined, resulting in maximum pullout resistance which increased with increasing confining pressure. The optimum sand layer thickness was the same for all the normal pressures investigated. For sandy soils the passive earth pressure offered the most pullout resistance, whereas for clayey soils, it was replaced by frictional resistance. It is anticipated that provision of thin sand layers will provide horizontal drainage preventing pore pressure built up in clay backfills on saturation.     

Laboratory model studies on unreinforced and geogrid-reinforced sand bed over stone column-improved soft clay

Results from a series of laboratory model tests on unreinforced and geogrid-reinforced sand bed resting on stone column-improved soft clay have been presented. The diameter of stone column and footing has been taken as 50 mm and 100 mm, respectively for all the model tests carried out. Load was applied to the soil bed through the footing until the total settlement reached at least 20% of footing diameter. As compared to unimproved soft clay, the increase in load-carrying capacity under different improved ground conditions has been observed. Influences of the thickness of unreinforced as well as geogrid-reinforced sand bed and the size of geogrid reinforcement on the performance of stone column-improved soft clay bed have also been investigated. Significant improvement in load-carrying capacity of soft soil is observed due to the placement of sand bed over stone column-improved soft clay. The inclusion of geogrid layer within sand bed further increases the load-carrying capacity and decreases the settlement of the soil. Due to the placement of sand bed, the bulge diameter of stone column reduces while the depth of bulge increases. Further reduction in the bulge diameter and increase in bulge depth are observed due to application of geogrid layer. The optimum thickness of unreinforced sand bed is twice the optimum thickness of geogrid-reinforced sand bed. Under specific material properties and test conditions, it is further observed that the optimum diameter of geogrid layer is thrice the diameter of footing.     

A Mohr-Coulomb-Vilar model for constitutive relationship in root-soil interface under changing suction

Understanding mechanical interactions at the root-soil interface is essential to predict the erosion of vegetated slopes. Recently, the shear strength of vegetatedil under changing hydraulic conditions has been measured and modeled; however, root-soil interfaces have not been investigated under changing hydraulic conditions. This paper proposes (1) a novel pullout apparatus to measure the shear strength at the root-soil interface under changing suction, (2) a Mohr-Coulomb-Vilar (MCV) shear strength model of root-soil interfaces, and (3) a numerical simulation using Node-To-Segment (NTS) approach along with Finite Element Method (FEM). The pullout tests were verified using the numerical simulation, and the results showed that the combination of the MCV model and NTS/FEM approach can accurately predict the shear behavior of root-soil interfaces under changing suction. In addition, we experimentally evaluated the pullout problem of roots and showed that the present method provides reasonably predicts root-pullout problems even when the suction is changed during the pullout process. The current method, therefore, can be used for predicting root-soil interface dynamics under varying suction and soil pressure by only adding two additional parameters of the Vilar model.     

Laboratory model tests and FE analyses on tunneling in the unconsolidated ground with inclined layers

Tunneling model tests are performed in an unconsolidated ground with inclined artificial layers. In order to simulate the model ground with inclined layers, aluminum rods and aluminum blocks are used. Three kinds of formations are introduced for the inclined-layer ground, namely, the 30° formation simulates a ground with lowly inclined layers, the 60° formation with highly inclined layers and the 90° formation simulates a ground with vertical layers. Tunneling process is simulated with a two-dimensional trapdoor apparatus. The 60° formation shows the most significant feature on the non-symmetrical distribution of the earth pressure. For this formation, the outer right part shows a greater concentration of earth pressure than the outer left part of the trapdoor. Simultaneously, the upper left part, for which lateral earth pressure is reduced, shows greater loads than the upper right part of the trapdoor. A numerical simulation by the FE analysis is conducted, using joint elements, to portray the discontinuous behaviors of the model ground, in order to verify the experimental results. By calculating the distributions of earth pressure and surface profiles with the trapdoor displacement, it is confirmed that the calculated results can reasonably portray the experimental results within lower displacements of approximately 1.00 mm.     

基于离心模型试验的桩帽网结构路基桩端持力层效应研究

为了考察桩端持力层强度对桩帽网结构路基(地基)承载特性的影响,设计了4组不同桩端持力层状态的离心模型试验,测试了地基变形、加筋垫层拉力和路堤基底压力等数据。测试数据表明:①桩端持力层强度降低,地基由稳定向出现桩底明显刺入再到出现桩端持力层局部剪切破坏方面转化;②桩端持力层强度提高,地基变形减小,路基中心桩底刺入及地表沉降、坡脚地基水平变形均值与持力层承载力的关系曲线可用幂函数描述;③桩端持力层强度越高,桩体承载集中效应与桩间土承载减载效应越明显;④路基中心附近地表沉降与路基面覆盖范围筋带拉力均值间的关系曲线可用二次多项式描述,考虑了路堤横向滑移因素的筋带拉力计算值与实测较接近;⑤端承摩擦桩型的桩端持力层强度提高,筋带所受拉力减小;⑥布设袋装砂井,能加快地基的排水固结,提高桩端持力层承载力,增强地基稳定性。     

土工布加筋土的三轴蠕变试验研究

 基于自行研发的大尺寸三轴蠕变试验仪,开展不同围压、加筋层数的素土和加筋土的三轴蠕变试验,得到不同偏应力、不同加筋层数下土体的蠕变特性和加筋对土体加固的机制,提出一种可以描述加筋土“应力–应变–时间”关系的PH经验模型,得到所获取的模型参数与加筋层数和偏应力的关系;并基于Burgers元件模型,建议一种加固效果系数来评价加筋前后对土体刚度的影响程度,结果表明：随着加筋层数的增加,其加筋效果呈线性增加,与高填方工程中以增加压实度的方法来减小工后变形相比,在填料中增加筋材具有更佳效果。     

Pullout tests on diagonally enhanced geocells embedded in sand to improve load-deformation response subjected to significant planar tensile loads

This paper presents pullout test results on conventional (ordinary) and diagonally enhanced geocells under surcharge pressures of 3, 13, 23 and 33 kPa. Extensive pullout tests on scaled geocells embedded in silica sand are performed to investigate the effects of improvements on load-deformation response, strength and stiffness. Conventional web-shaped geocells are having a small stiffness when subjected to planar tension attributed to deformability of webs. Therefore, conventional geocells may not function properly when subjected to tensile forces along the main plane in service. A special geocell is fabricated in this study, similar to tendoned geocells, through adding diagonal members along the induced tensile load to overcome the shortcomings of conventional geocells. The test results have shown that both the stiffness and ultimate resistance of the diagonally enhanced geocells have significantly improved with respect to the conventional ones. Afterwards, three experiments were carried out on a small-scale shallow footing resting on sand reinforced with geocells, indicating improvement in bearing capacity as well as load-settlement response of footings supported by the diagonally enhanced geocells as compared to conventional geocells.     

舟山桃夭门大桥钢与混凝土结合段模型试验研究

混合梁斜拉桥中结合段的连接形式是非常重要的构造。本论文结合桃夭门大桥,采用1∶2的缩尺,对结合段进行了模型试验研究,通过试验,研究了截面正应力分布规律、抗裂性,剪滞效应,应力的纵向传递、剪应力分布等,得到了许多有价值的试验数据,对实桥设计起到了很大的指导作用。     

桶形基础抗拔力试验研究

简要介绍了桶形基础在抗拔承载力方面的研究现状 ,根据桶形基础应用地区的滩海地质情况制备模型试验地基基础。为了了解桶形基础在这一地区的抗拔承载力情况 ,对不同桶深的桶形基础进行抗拔承载力试验 ,分析桶形基础抗拔承载力的作用机理 ,同时 ,考虑了负压对抗拔承载力的影响 ,为桶形基础在这一地区的使用提供了一定的参考     

冻土中锥型桩模型试验研究及有限元分析

通过冻土中锥型桩室内模型试验研究得出冻结土体中锥型桩承载力特征:Q-S曲线未发现“台阶”现象,也不存在陡降段,其破坏形式接近于渐进型。对现有冻土流变模型的分析,提出了用非线性牛顿体替代线性牛顿体,建立了改进的西源本构模型;并将改进的西源本构模型成功地添加到ADINA软件平台中。采用改进的西源本构模型对冻土中锥型桩室内模型试验进行了有限元数值仿真,模型试验结果和有限元计算接近,表明:采用有限元数值方法可为寒区冻土中锥型桩设计和施工提供参考。     

Temperatures during fire tests on structure and its prediction according to Eurocodes

The paper reports on an experimental programme to investigate the global structural behaviour of a compartment in the three-storey steel frame building in a plant of the Mittal Steel Ostrava exposed to fire before demolition. The research project of the Czech Technical University in Prague was focussed on the examination of the temperature development within the various unprotected structural elements and its connections, the corresponding distribution of horizontal forces and the behaviour of the laterally unrestrained beams during the natural fire. The experiment also allowed studying of the heating of external elements, the influence of connection in a wall of sandwich panels, the temperature development in light timber-based panel and the degradation of the timber concrete composite element. Before the compartment fire, a local fire was prepared to verify the models of the temperature development in an unprotected column. The comparisons to the simplified calculations by European standards are included in the text to show their strong and weak points in prediction of temperatures of gas and structural elements during fire.