Choice behavior in social dilemmas: Effects of social identity, group size, and decision framing.

Social dilemmas appear in 2 basic forms: the public goods (PG) problem, in which the individual must decide whether to contribute to a common resource, and the commons dilemma (CD), in which the individual must decide whether to take from a common resource. The 2 forms of choice dilemma are equivalent in terms of outcomes, but because they involve different decision frames, they are not psychologically equivalent. The present experiment, with 88 undergraduates, examined framing effects on decisions involving use of a common resource pool in a 2?×?2?×?2 (PG vs CD task structure?×?small vs large group size?×?individualistic vs collective social identity) factorial design. That the 2 versions of the decision task were not psychologically equivalent was evidenced both by a main effect of task structure and by interactions involving task structure, group size, and social identity. Overall, Ss kept more of the common resource for themselves under the PG version of the task than under the CD frame. Under the CD structure, group size had no effect on choice behavior, but in the PG version, Ss in large groups kept more than did individuals in small groups. As the resource pool was depleted, the social identity manipulation had opposite effects for large groups under CD and PG frames. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Some social psychological effects of group decision rules.

This study examined the effects of group decision rules and decision outcomes on satisfaction with the outcomes, perceived fairness of the rules, and amount of rejection between majority members and deviates. Two hundred and seventy male subjects were led to believe that they belonged to groups, each of which consisted of a four-person majority and a lone deviate. The groups ostensibly made decisions by using a majority, dictatorial, or unanimity rule. Principal findings of the study were as follows: Subjects were more satisfied with decisions with which they agreed than with decisions with which they disagreed. The perceived fairness of the decision rules was primarily a function of the representativeness of the decision. Subjects felt the rule was fairer when it resulted in a decision that was representative of the preferences of most group members than when it resulted in a decision that was unrepresentative. Finally, mutual rejection occurred between majority members and the lone deviate. The strongest rejection, however, was by majority members toward the deviate in instances when, under the dictatorship and unanimity rules, the deviate was able to impose an unrepresentative decision on the majority. Findings are discussed partly in terms of the effects of outcomes on the perceived legitimacy of decision rules and the resulting feelings toward group members held to be responsible for implementation of the rules. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social combination models, persuasive arguments theory, social comparison theory, and choice shift.

Individuals and 5-person groups responded 3 successive times to 4 standard choice-dilemma items in the order of either individual–group–individual or individual–individual–individual; 288 male undergraduates served as Ss. Decisions were made for oneself, for a friend, and for a stranger (the hypothetical protagonist of the standard choice-dilemma instructions). Decisions for the stranger were more risky than decisions for a friend, and decisions for a friend were more risky than decisions for oneself. As predicted from persuasive arguments theory, the best fitting social combination model on the most risky item was risk-supported wins; the best fitting model on the most conservative item was conservative-supported wins; and the best fitting model on 2 less extreme items was majority wins. It is emphasized that social combination models and theories of group-interaction processes, such as persuasive arguments theory or social comparison theory, are complementary rather than rival explanations of collective decision making. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Signal-detection analysis of group decision making.

How effectively can groups of people make yes-or-no decisions? To answer this question, we used signal-detection theory to model the behavior of groups of human participants in a visual detection task. The detection model specifies how performance depends on the group's size, the competence of the members, the correlation among members' judgments, the constraints on member interaction, and the group's decision rule. The model also allows specification of performance efficiency, which is a measure of how closely a group's performance matches the statistically optimal group. The performance of our groups was consistent with the theoretical predictions, but efficiency decreased as group size increased. This result was attributable to a decrease in the effort that members gave to their individual tasks rather than an inefficiency in combining the information in the members' judgments. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychological entrapment in group decision making: An assigned decision rule and a groupthink phenomenon.

Addressed interpersonal factors affecting group entrapment and also attempted to delineate a conceptual link between collective entrapment and I. L. Janis's (1972, 1982) notion of groupthink. Two experiments were conducted in which 3-person groups were assigned either majority or unanimity rule as an official consensus requirement for their initial decision. It was expected and confirmed that groups whose initial decision processes were guided by unanimity rule were entrapped more often to the chosen course of action than were groups with majority rule. The results also suggested that homogeneity of members' opinions at the outset of interaction and group's rationalization norm were responsible for the observed difference. Discussion is focused on the implications of these findings for administrative decision contexts and their conceptual link of the notion of groupthink. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The stepladder technique: An alternative group structure facilitating effective group decision making.

A new group problem-solving structure entitled the stepladder technique is introduced. The stepladder technique is intended to allay the problems associated with group decision making by structuring the entry of group members into a core group and by ensuring that each member contributes to the decision-making process. Four-person groups, randomly assigned to either the stepladder group condition (15 groups) or the conventional group condition (15 groups), performed D. Johnson and F. Johnson's (1987) winter survival exercise. Stepladder groups produced significantly (p?     

Attitude polarization: Effects of group membership.

Two experiments demonstrated the effect of group membership on attitude polarization. 132 undergraduates listened to a taped discussion that advocated either the retention or the abolition of standardized testing approximately 2 mo after a pretest had indicated their mild support for retaining the tests. In the 1st experiment the taped discussion was attributed either to a group the S was about to join or to a group with whom the S's group was to compete. Attitudes shifted toward the position advocated on the tape only when the discussion was attributed to the ingroup. A 2nd experiment explored the mechanism underlying the polarization produced by group membership. 40 Ss listened to proabolition or proretention discussions attributed to their own group or to an unrelated group before estimating the normative position of the group on the tape and completing an individual post measure. Ss' perceptions of their own group's norm were found to be significantly more extreme than the uninvolved Ss' perceptions. Postdiscussion attitudes moved to this "extremitized" norm rather than moving beyond it, supporting a social identification rather than a social differentiation explanation of the phenomenon. (43 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Issue importance and group choice shifts: A persuasive arguments approach.

Examined the ability of persuasive arguments theory to explain the effects of issue importance on group choice shifts. 75 female undergraduates completed 1 of 2 tasks (individual argument generation or small-group discussion) under conditions of either high or low issue importance. A. Vinocur and E. Burnstein's (see PA, Vols 52:5207 and 54:2992) persuasive arguments theory was then employed to predict the discussion-produced effects from the individually generated arguments. This model accurately forecasts both the direction and strength of the issue importance effects as well as the relative magnitude of the choice shifts. These results suggest that persuasive argumentation mediates the effects of issue importance on group choice shifts and help to establish the general validity of the theory. (13 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Preschool children's social status and maternal instructions to assist group entry.

Mothers' preparatory instructions (comments, helpful advice, and suggestions) intended to assist their child in subsequently joining the play of an unknown pair of children were studied. What mothers said to their child while they actually joined in (contemporaneous instructions) was investigated, as well as their claims about the kind of feedback they would give the child after the play. Mothers of popular, rejected, and neglected children were compared. It was hypothesized that the instructions mothers gave would parallel the known group-entry behavior of these groups of children. Hypotheses were substantially supported for mothers of popular children, moderately supported for mothers of neglected children, and less supported for mothers of rejected children. The most consistent finding was that mothers of popular children were more likely to suggest a group-oriented entry strategy to their child. These results tend to support previous studies suggesting that there are links between the social behavior of parents and their children and that family experiences may be involved in the acquisition of peer relationship skills. The mechanisms by which such family influence might operate are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Majority and minority influence in group negotiation: The moderating effects of social motivation and decision rules.

In organizational groups, often a majority has aligned preferences that oppose those of a minority. Although such situations may give rise to majority coalitions that exclude the minority or to minorities blocking unfavorable agreements, structural and motivational factors may stimulate groups to engage in integrative negotiation, leading to collectively beneficial agreements. An experiment with 97 3-person groups was designed to test hypotheses about the interactions among decision rule, the majority's social motivation, and the minority's social motivation. Results showed that under unanimity rule, minority members block decisions, thus harming the group, but only when the minority has proself motivation. Under majority rule, majority members coalesce at the minority's expense, but only when the majority has a proself motivation. Implications for negotiation research and group decision making are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Choice reaction time: An analysis of the major theoretical positions.

This report analyzes and evaluates (against experimental findings) contemporary theories of choice reaction time (CRT). The influence of Donders' subtraction method on current theory is assessed, followed by a review of experimental findings concerned with the effects on CRT of (a) number of alternatives, (b) stimulus probability, (c) stimulus value, (d) repetition of stimulus or response, (e) stimulus discriminability, (f) stimulus-response compatibility, (g) practice, and (h) emphasis on speed vs. accuracy. A 3-state conceptualization of the central mechanisms operative during the latent period-stimulus preprocessing, stimulus categorization, and response selection-is proposed. The theories are dichotomized on the basis of the process-template matching vs. feature testing-which is assumed to underlie stimulus categorization. The analysis indicates that current theories have neglected response-selection processes and are consequently unable to account for several experimental findings. A final section deals with the relation of CRT theories to perceptual recognition theories. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Interpersonal perception in group therapy: A social relations analysis.

Although group therapists have emphasized the importance of interpersonal perception and feedback during therapy, there has been little systematic research on how group members form impressions of one another. D. J. Kiesler's (see record 1983-30243-001) interpersonal circle provided a framework for studying interpersonal perception and relations. 27 women and 18 men from 9 time-limited therapy groups reported their impressions of their fellow group members using the Impact Message Inventory, and they also completed 2 self-report scales. A social relations analysis of this data indicated that Ss' perceptions included both assimilation and consensus. There was also a relationship between how Ss saw themselves before therapy and how they were seen by other group members. The results demonstrated the utility of the social relations model for group therapy research and provided modest support for Kiesler's interpersonal circle. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Convoys of social support: An intergenerational analysis.

Within the Convoy Model, social networks are viewed as dynamic hierarchic structures surrounding the individual throughout life. As a step toward empirical definition of convoy structure and function across the life span, a bicultural sample (N?=?159) of young adult women, their mothers, and their grandmothers were queried. Comparable results were obtained across generations and cultures with regard to network size, the amount of support provided by the network, and the nomination of close family members as primary sources of support. However, there was a marked shift across generations in the balance of familial vs friendship relations. Younger persons included fewer family members and more friends in their networks, and they received more support from friends. These cross-sectional results are consistent with the Convoy Model and suggest that longitudinal research is warranted. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social impact and social preference as determinants of children's peer group status.

Evaluated 3 sociometric procedures utilizing a 2-dimensional social-impact and social-preference framework on 3 samples of 4th and 5th graders (ns?=?334, 173, and 89). The stability and distribution of classification, the relationship between dimensions, the validation of dimensions, and the validation of classification groups were considered. The method proposed by J. Peery (see record 1980-06647-001) appeared most problematic, and the procedure proposed by J. Coie et al (see record 1982-27928-001) was found to have nonexhaustive groups and the potential of misrepresenting Ss' social networks when standardized scores were used. An alternative 2-dimensional sociometric model based on probability theory was found to have excellent performance characteristics while still providing a constant frame of reference across social networks. The social reputational correlates of the impact and preference dimensions and the sociometric groups proposed by each model were investigated. Although social impact and social preference were reliable and valid determinants of peer group status, the need for alternative indicators of children's social standing in the peer group is discussed. (35 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Group decision making and social influence: A social interaction sequence model.

Discusses the social interaction sequence (SIS) model, which represents the group decision-making process in terms of the sequential choice behavior—changes in preference and certainty—of group members. This model states that the probabilities of preference and certainty changes are related to the current distribution of opinion in the group. An application of the SIS model to a study of jury decision making (G. Strasser, 1977) is presented, and results of earlier empirical studies are predicted by a computer simulation version of the model. Shift and opinion change versions of the model are proposed, with both extensions incorporating the concept of a characteristic certainty distribution. Characteristic certainty distributions are used to examine the expected effects of group size and assigned-decision rule on members' confidence in a group's decision. (57 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognition and psychopathology: An analysis of social introversion and self-statements.

Administered the MMPI and the Social Interaction Self-Statement Test (SISST) to 92 18–49 yr old mental health center clients as part of the intake process. Ss' self-ratings and clinicians' ratings on the degree to which shyness had been a problem for S were also obtained. Results show that the Social Introversion scale of the MMPI was the most efficient predictor of the SISST scales. Both measures were equally efficient in predicting clinicians' ratings of shyness. Findings support the notion that cognitive assessment methods may complement information obtained by traditional assessment methods. (2 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Transformational leadership and group interaction as climate antecedents: A social network analysis.

In order to test the social mechanisms through which organizational climate emerges, this article introduces a model that combines transformational leadership and social interaction as antecedents of climate strength (i.e., the degree of within-unit agreement about climate perceptions). Despite their longstanding status as primary variables, both antecedents have received limited empirical research. The sample consisted of 45 platoons of infantry soldiers from 5 different brigades, using safety climate as the exemplar. Results indicate a partially mediated model between transformational leadership and climate strength, with density of group communication network as the mediating variable. In addition, the results showed independent effects for group centralization of the communication and friendship networks, which exerted incremental effects on climate strength over transformational leadership. Whereas centralization of the communication network was found to be negatively related to climate strength, centralization of the friendship network was positively related to it. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social status in small groups: Individual–group similarity and the social "misfit."

Proposes that social status is a function of both individual and group characteristics and argues that 2 factors are necessary to predict peer popularity—prosocial interaction and person–group similarity. Prosocial behavior, viewed as a prerequisite for high social status, was predicted to be consistently correlated with status across peer groups. The relation between status and other social behaviors such as aggression was predicted to be mediated by the degree of similarity between the individual and the peer group. Two studies were conducted with 217 males (mean age 10 yrs) at a summer program for children with behavioral and social problems. Data from both acceptance and rejection measures of status support the proposed model. This evidence helps to integrate discrepant findings in the sociometric literature and demonstrates the utility of social psychological theories of interpersonal attraction in the study of peer status. (45 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)