Stable and transient determinants of students' perceived control: Implications for instruction in the college classroom.

Stable uncontrollability and transient loss of control were examined in conjunction with quality of college instruction. Students with internal and external loci of control received no training or either contingent or noncontingent feedback. We manipulated the quality of instruction by using a ?-hr videotaped lecture that varied in expressiveness (low and high). The dependent measures were student achievement and achievement attributions. For those who received no prelecture feedback, expressiveness improved the achievement of internal- but not external-locus students on a test after the lecture. Expressiveness effects on achievement and causal attributions also differed, depending on whether students previously received contingent or noncontingent feedback before the lecture. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Causal attributions and perceived performance: Consequences for college students' achievement and perceived control in different instructional conditions.

Recent developments in control theory suggest that causal attributions are instrumental to the regulation of control and to achievement behavior. This process is relevant to college classroom settings in which academic failure repeatedly threatens students with loss of control. Three causal attributions were examined in relation to perceived performance and the quality of instruction. Following failure feedback attributed to ability, effort, or test difficulty, university students (N?=?223) observed a half-hour videotaped lecture presented by either a low or a high expressive instructor. The three causal attributions affected postlecture control and achievement, depending on the quality of instruction and on students' interpretation (distortion, nondistortion) of the failure feedback prior to the lecture. When instruction was poor, the effort attribution generated the best achievement in those students who distorted failure as success. In contrast, ability produced the best achievement, and effort, the most control, in nondistortion students. When instruction was good, the causal attributions produced less variability in achievement and control, although ability continued to facilitate achievement in nondistortion students. One of the benefits of good teaching appears to be that it compensates to some extent for the deleterious effects of some causal attributions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceived control, Type A/B behavior, and quality of instruction.

Perceived control can impede achievement by interfering with instruction. College students who suffer temporary loss of control perform no better with an effective instructor than with an ineffective instructor. Type A students, however, may continue to benefit from effective instruction because of their intensified efforts to maintain control over academic outcomes when their control is threatened. Type A and B students received either contingent or noncontingent feedback on an aptitude test and then observed a half-hour lecture from either an unexpressive or expressive instructor. After the aptitude test they completed an attribution questionnaire, and after the lecture they took an achievement test and responded to a test-related questionnaire. Noncontingent feedback lowered both Type A and B students' perceived control and their internal attribution locus. It also reduced the effectiveness of instruction for Type B students but not for Type A students. Unlike those of Type B students, Type A students' self-perceptions were unaffected by instructional quality, which suggests a greater emphasis on self-directed, rather than other-directed, responsibility for achievement. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceived control in the college classroom: Limitations in instructor expressiveness due to noncontingent feedback and lecture content.

Consistent with various control theories, recent evidence suggests that exposure to noncontingent outcomes interferes with instructional quality in the college classroom. The present study examined whether the density of negative noncontingent outcomes limits instructor expressiveness as an effective teaching behavior in different lecture content conditions. 361 undergraduates took an aptitude test that provided contingent feedback (CF) or low or medium noncontingent failure feedback (NCFF). Ss completed an attribution questionnaire and then observed a videotaped lecture low or high in content given by a low- or high-expressive instructor, after which Ss responded to a postlecture achievement test and an attribution questionnaire. Medium NCFF reduced Ss' perceived control and lowered their internal attribution locus for their aptitude performance, compared to low NCFF and CF. Postlecture results indicated that for high-content lectures, instructor expressiveness facilitated achievement and confidence in Ss who received CF and low NCFF but not in Ss who received medium NCFF. (34 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceived control in the college classroom: Response–outcome contingency training and instructor expressiveness effects on student achievement and causal attributions.

Following an incentive (low, high) manipulation, 296 college students received response–outcome contingency training involving contingent, noncontingent, or no feedback and responded to an attribution questionnaire. All Ss then observed a lecture presented by a low- or high-expressive instructor and completed a postlecture achievement test and an attribution questionnaire. Results show that noncontingent Ss perceived less control and also manifested a helplessness attribution profile after the contingency manipulation. Postlecture results indicate that the high- compared to the low-expressive instructor increased achievement and internal locus in contingent but not noncontingent Ss for low-incentive conditions only. (34 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Students' self-reported effort and time on homework in six school subjects: Between-students differences and within-student variation.

Effort on homework has a profound impact on student achievement. Researchers typically use an interindividual research design to explain homework effort. In this study with a total of 511 students from Grades 8 and 9, an interindividual perspective (focus on between-students differences) was combined with an intraindividual perspective (focus on within-student differences). Multilevel modeling showed that students' homework effort was a function of between-students differences in conscientiousness and within-student differences in perceived homework characteristics (subject-specific quality of tasks and homework control), perceived parental valuation of specific subjects, and homework motivation (subject-specific expectancy and value beliefs). Furthermore, a significant cross-level interaction indicated that perceived homework control by teachers had a stronger effect on students low in conscientiousness than on their more conscientious peers. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Between-teacher differences in homework assignments and the development of students' homework effort, homework emotions, and achievement.

The study examines whether teachers' homework objectives, implementation practices, and attitudes toward parental involvement are associated with the development of students' homework effort, homework emotions, and achievement during Grade 8. A total of 63 teachers (40 male, 23 female; mean teaching experience: M = 17.5 years) of French as a 2nd language and their 1,299 Grade 8 students (51.2% female; mean age at first measurement point: M = 13.84, SD = 0.56) participated in the study. In multilevel models, teachers' homework attitudes and behaviors were specified to predict outcomes at the end of Grade 8, controlling for covariates at the beginning of Grade 8. A low emphasis on drill and practice tasks and a high emphasis on motivation were associated with favorable developments in homework effort and achievement. Controlling homework assignments were associated with less homework effort and more negative homework emotions; the opposite pattern was found for students whose teacher supported student homework autonomy rather than parental homework involvement. The authors call for a systematic integration of findings from homework research in teacher training. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of attributional retraining on the career beliefs and career exploration behavior of college students.

Two studies were conducted to evaluate the efficacy of attributional retraining as a career counseling technique for college students. Participants who received the attributional retraining treatment viewed an 8-min videotape designed to foster internal, controllable, and unstable attributions for career decision making. Participants in the control groups viewed a similar videotape that lacked any reference to career-related attributions. Results revealed that participants who received attributional retraining exhibited significant changes in career beliefs and attributional style and engaged in significantly more career exploration behavior than the participants in the control groups. An evaluation of attributional retraining as a career-counseling technique for college students is provided, and ideas for further research are suggested. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Longitudinal Effects of In-School and Out-of-School Homework on High School Grades.

Research has shown that time spent on homework is an important influence on school learning. Many students complete their "home" work in school, yet it is unclear whether homework's effectiveness varies depending on whether it is completed in school or at home. The purpose of this research was to determine the relative influence on students' high school grades of time spent doing homework in school as compared to time spent doing homework out-of-school. We used longitudinal data from the National Education Longitudinal Study to develop, cross-validate, and test a series of structural equation models of the effects of in-school and out-of-school homework on students' high school grades. Results suggest that out-of-school homework had a substantial effect on grades, whereas in-school homework had no such effect. This finding held across different definitions of homework, and when using achievement test scores as an alternative measure of school learning. The findings suggest that schools should encourage students to complete homework at home, rather than in school. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effective instruction and students' perceptions of control in the college classroom: Multiple-lectures effects.

Recent research indicates that instructor expressivenes is an effective teaching behavior for college students who perceive that they have control over their academic achievement. However, the achievement-enhancing effect of a high-expressive instructor is impeded when students experience temporary loss of control. We tested the persistence of this effect by giving students either contingent or noncontingent feedback on an aptitude test and then having them observe two lectures 1 week apart in which the expressiveness of the instructors varied. Lecture 1 results replicated previous findings in that the high-expressive instructor was effective for contingent students only. This pattern did not persist in Lecture 2, however, which suggests that effective instruction and reactance may counteract the negative consequences of loss of control. The remedial benefits of instructor expressiveness were considered for students lacking control in the college classroom. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Dimensional comparisons: An experimental approach to the internal/external frame of reference model.

According to the internal/external frame of reference model (H. W. Marsh, 1986, 1990a), students not only use social comparisons to evaluate their performance (external frame of reference) but they also use dimensional comparisons (internal frame of reference), comparing their own achievement in one subject with that in other subjects. Three experimental studies were conducted to investigate the psychological processes underlying the effects of achievement in one domain on self-perceived competence in another. In Study 1 (N?=?36), high achievement in one domain led to lower self-perceived competence in the other domain. Study 2 (N?=?45) showed inverse effects on self-perceived competence when achievement feedback included explicit dimensional comparison information about students' achievement in both tasks. In Study 3 (N?=?90), dimensional comparison effects were shown even when additional social comparison information was presented. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Doing homework: perspectives of elementary and junior high school students

A survey of homework experiences was administered to 1,527 elementary and junior high students in regular (n = 1,242), resource (n = 234), and self-contained special education (n = 51) classrooms. The results found significant main effects for Group, Grade, and Group by Grade interactions for items related to amount of, type of, and time spent doing homework; opportunity to do homework at school; parents' assistance; students' beliefs about homework assignments and grading; and students' feelings about homework and school. The higher incidence of negative feelings and opinions from students in resource room programs suggests that students' understanding of assignments, the nature of the assignments, and the feedback given to students are important issues requiring closer evaluation. The results also suggest that changes in homework assignments and grading may make the transition from elementary to junior high school particularly difficult for students with special needs.     

Bidirectionality of influence in classroom interaction.

Results of systematic observation of teacher-student interaction in 35 junior and senior high school classrooms indicate that students exert influence over classroom events and that they accurately perceive how much control they have (measured by Koenig and Hess's Origin Climate Questionnaire). In a subsample of classes, students' perceived influence but not their observed influence is positively and significantly related to their academic achievement (Iowa Test of Basic Skills). Thus, the unidirectional model of teacher-to-student influence reflected in previous classroom research is found inadequate to characterize patterns of interaction. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Tests of the internal/external frames of reference model with subject-specific academic self-efficacy and frame-specific academic self-concepts.

H. W. Marsh's (1986) internal/external (I/E) frames of reference model posits that students' self-concepts result from simultaneous comparison of their competence to their peers' ability and their ability in other areas. The I/E model failed to receive clear support with (a) subject-specific self-efficacy and (b) frame-specific self-concepts. Frame-specific self-concepts were assessed by asking students to report their self-perceived capability in direct reference to the internal and external comparison frames. Contrary to the I/E model's assumptions, students' verbal and math self-concepts based on the internal comparison were positively correlated; achievement in one area negatively influenced both internal and external comparison-based self-concepts in the other area; and verbal and math self-concepts were positively correlated. Interestingly, most of the model's predictions were confirmed when the classical I/E model structure was replicated, demonstrating that the hypothesized relations among self and achievement factors can be achieved without satisfying the model's theoretical provisions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Homework works if homework quality is high: Using multilevel modeling to predict the development of achievement in mathematics.

The present study examined the associations of 2 indicators of homework quality (homework selection and homework challenge) with homework motivation, homework behavior, and mathematics achievement. Multilevel modeling was used to analyze longitudinal data from a representative national sample of 3,483 students in Grades 9 and 10; homework effects were analyzed at the student and the class level simultaneously. Students who perceived their homework assignments to be well selected reported higher homework motivation, and homework behavior at both the student and the class level predicted later achievement at the class level. Homework assignments perceived to be cognitively challenging were differentially associated with achievement at the student and the class level. Students who perceived their homework to be challenging (student level) showed relatively poor performance, but homework challenge was positively related to achievement at the class level. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationships among attitudes about homework, amount of homework assigned and completed, and student achievement.

Students (n?=?709), parents, and teachers (n?=?82) completed a questionnaire concerning amount of homework assigned by teachers, portion of assignments completed by students, and attitudes about homework. Student achievement measures were also collected. Weak relations were found between the amount of homework assigned and student achievement. Positive relations were found between the amount of homework students completed and achievement, especially at upper grades (6–12). At lower grades (2 and 4), teacher-assigned homework was related to negative student attitudes. At upper grades, teachers with more positive attitudes toward homework and those whose students performed more poorly on standardized tests reported assigning more homework. A path analysis for lower grades indicated that class grades were predicted only by standardized test scores and the proportion of homework completed by students. At upper grades, class grade predictors also included parent, teacher, and student attitudes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Confidence in Individual and Group Decision Making: When "Two Heads" Are Worse Than One.

The authors investigated students' accuracy and confidence judgments for course-related material in college classrooms. Under conditions of group work and instructor feedback, students produced higher exam accuracy scores working in groups than alone but at a cost of increased confidence for groups' wrong answers. Groups' high confidence for wrong answers generated the case when "two heads are worse than one." Students participating in groups that arrived at wrong exam answers gave higher confidence when wrong and lower confidence when correct for repeated items on a final exam. "Two heads" groups when wrong had no adverse effect on students' accuracy for repeated exam items. An intervention of lecture and readings on confidence calibration, metamemory, and overconfidence did not improve the students' accuracy-confidence judgments. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex and gender in the college classroom: A quantitative analysis of faculty–student interactions and perceptions.

Students and instructors from 24 classrooms across 8 departments at a major university were observed in this study to (a) assess for sex differences in faculty–student interactions and in students' perceptions of their college classroom environment, (b) compare student perceptions of their college classroom interaction patterns with observed faculty–student interactions, and (c) assess a variety of demographic characteristics together to determine their singular and/or interactive effects on faculty–student interaction patterns and student perceptions. Male and female students did not differ in their classroom participation or perceptions, and instructors did not interact differently with the male and female students. Student perceptions strongly correlated with their own behaviors and with instructor behaviors. Classroom interactions and student perceptions varied on the basis of different demographic characteristics including instructor sex, class size, instructor monitoring of gender–race equity in the classroom, gender relevance of the course, and the sex ratio of the class. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Individual differences and preference for instructional methods.

Administered the Test Anxiety Questionnaire and the Omnibus Personality Inventory to 185 college students taking a psychology course in socialization. Ss were then asked to choose 1 of 3 instructional options: lecture, lecture with discussion, or independent study. Ss preferring each option differed on dimensions such as flexibility, autonomy, preference for abstract thinking, and several variables dealing with academic and personal experience. Other research dealing with individual differences and student behavior is discussed, and recommendations for practical application to the classroom are presented. (French summary) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Diffusion effects: Control group contamination threats to the validity of teacher-administered interventions.

Within-class experimental designs (with experimental and control groups in the same classroom) are subject to diffusion effects whereby both experimental and control students benefit from the intervention, thereby contaminating the control group and biasing evaluations of intervention effects. Although the problem has been recognized, most previous demonstrations have been anecdotal. In support of diffusion effects, we show that a classroom intervention resulted in higher academic self-concepts for internal (within-class) controls compared with external (between-class) controls. The construct validity of the interpretation of this difference as a diffusion effect was supported by observer and teacher comments and ratings of teacher success in focusing the intervention on experimental students and by different patterns of results for teachers who were more or less successful in maintaining this focus. Potential dangers in sole reliance on internal within-class control groups may outweigh advantages of this expedient experimental design. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)