Marital satisfaction of parents of preadolescent boys and its relationship to family and child functioning.

Investigated the relationship between parents' marital satisfaction (MS) and family and child outcomes among 50 mothers and 43 fathers with 6th-grade sons. Outcomes in 3 domains of functioning were studied: within-family functioning, 2 aspects of sons' social-emotional (SEM) adjustment (distress and restraint), and sons' academic achievement. Two mediators by which MS might influence the outcomes were also assessed: individual parental characteristics (i.e., SEM functioning) and child-rearing practices. Quality of the marital relationship was signficantly related to outcomes in each domain of functioning. Mothers' MS was related to overall family functioning; fathers' MS was related to sons' school achievement and development of self-control. The relationship between fathers' MS and sons' self-restraint was accounted for by fathers' SEM functioning and child rearing. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Negative family environment as a predictor of boy's future status on measures of hostile attitudes, interview behavior, and anger expression.

The present study tested the hypothesis that family environments characterized as nonsupportive, unaccepting, and conflictual lead to the development of hostile traits in adolescent Caucasian boys. Negative behaviors during parent–son discussions aimed at resolving disagreements were observed in a laboratory setting in 51 intact families. Sons' hostile traits were assessed at the time of the interactions and then 3 years later. Results showed that a high frequency of negative behaviors exhibited by both parents and sons predicted sons' later hostile attitudes and outward expression of anger after adjustment for their initial level of hostile attitudes and anger expression, respectively. A low frequency of positive behaviors exhibited by the father and son predicted sons' later Potential for Hostility ratings after adjustment for their initial level. The meaning of these findings for the conceptualization of hostility is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Predicting parent–child interactions from children's activity level.

Examined the relationship between children's activity level and parent–child (P–C) interactions in 117 preschool children and their parents. Four P–C combinations (mother–daughter, father–daughter, mother–son, and father–son) were studied. Using R. Q. Bell's (see record 1968-08747-001) conceptualization of upper and lower limit parental control behavior, it was predicted that P–C interactions involving active children would be marked by more strife and conflict than P–C interactions involving more quiescent, less active children. Parents of highly active children tended to intrude physically and could be described as getting into power struggles and competition with their children. Impatience or hostility toward active children was observed in parents of all P–C pairings except the father–son combination. In contrast, interactions involving less active children were generally peaceful and harmonious. (28 ref)-008 6504 (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Three-way analysis of dyadic social interactions.

Proposes a method for analyzing data from dyadic social interactions across 3 dichotomous variables. By accounting for the likely interdependency between 2 scores from a dyad, problems incurred with traditional analyses are circumvented. The analysis is demonstrated by an examination of data from 4 groups of 41 parent–child dyads: mother–daughter, mother–son, father–daughter, and father–son. The effects of sex-of-S, sex-of-partner, familial relationship between S and partner, and the interaction of these factors were tested. Results are compared to results derived from a repeated-measures ANOVA. It is shown that the latter analysis may mask important features of the data. (1 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of a playgroup experience on mother–son and father–son interaction.

Compared the mother–son and father–son interaction of 6 toddlers who were completely homereared with the parent–child interactions of 6 male toddlers who were participants in a daily 3-hr playgroup. Interactions were videotaped in a semistructured laboratory setting. The first observation was made immediately before the beginning of the playgroup experience, with subsequent observations being made after half of the toddlers had been in a playgroup for 3 and 6 mo. Although there were no differences in the playgroup and homecare toddlers before the playgroup experience, significant differences were found after the playgroup experience. The playgroup toddlers became proportionally more active in their parent–child interactions. They also became more responsive to the interaction initiations of their parents. Significant differences were also found in parental behavior as a function of the playgroup experience. The parents of the playgroup children became significantly less dominant. In addition, some differences were found in mother–child and father–child interaction independent of the playgroup experience. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in the socialization of affectionate expression.

87 parent–child pairs were videotaped during the departure routine when the parent left the child at a child-care center. In the 2-parent sample, parent–daughter dyads showed higher levels of overall interaction than parent–son dyads. Although affectionate interaction was high for parent–daughter dyads, the level of affection was particularly low in father–son dyads. The single mother interacted with both sexes at high and nonsignificantly different levels, but did not engage in more affection with her child. (9 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Like father, like son? Predicting male adolescents' adjustment from parents' distress and self-restraint.

Mothers' and fathers' own subjective distress and self-restraint when their sons were preadolescents were related to 14 measures of sons' outcomes 4 yrs later. A sample of 82 adolescent boys, including 55 from 2-parent families, participated. Consistent with expectations, the sons of fathers prone to low self-restraint uniformly had subsequent difficulties across domains, including poor academic achievement (e.g., low grades, truancy), poor peer relations (e.g., low emotional support and intimacy), at-risk behaviors (e.g., drug and alcohol use, multiple sexual partners, poor conflict resolution skills), and adjustment problems (e.g., symptoms of depression). In 2-parent families, the associations between mothers' adjustment and sons' outcomes became nonsignificant once differences in fathers' self-restraint were taken into account. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Parental concordance on child rearing and the interactive emphases of parents: Sex-differentiated relationships during the preschool years.

An objective index of parental concordance on child-rearing values was generated in families of 3-year-old children by comparing the independent responses of 70 parent dyads with the set of 91 Child-rearing Practices Report (CRPR) Q-items. The CRPR agreement index was then related to mother–child and father–child structured interaction observed 2 years later in a structured interaction situation. In families of boys, concordance on child rearing was positively associated with parental education. Relations between parental value concordance and parents' interactive emphases were more readily apparent for parents of boys than for parents of girls, with the largest number of correlates obtained in the mother–son dyad. In the sample of boys, converging parental value systems were associated with a maternal interactive style characterized by permissive control strategies, nonauthoritarianism, indirectness of maternal communication, resourcefulness, and by an absence of intrusive and competitive maternal behaviors. In the mother–son dyad, reliable relationships between the CRPR agreement index and maternal interactive behaviors continued to be observed after controlling for mother's education. When the interactive correlates of parental value concordance were compared across the four parent–child dyads, the father–daughter dyad was described as being particularly different from the other three dyads. The implications of these results for the understanding of marriage–parenting relationships as moderated by sex are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Changes in functions of three relations during adolescence.

Three functions of interpersonal relations (attempt at behavior control, intimacy, and nurture) were assessed in friendship, mother–child, and father–child relations of adolescents to examine age, relational, sex, and mother–father differences. 60 female and 60 male 4th, 7th, and 10th graders and undergraduates rated 8 statements that portrayed interpersonal interactions for each relationship to indicate how closely the statements described Ss' actual interpersonal relations. Parents exerted greater control than friends across grades. Intimacy in friendship was lower than in parent–child relations at 4th grade, but it surpassed the parent level by 10th grade. Nurturance remained relatively consistent and high across grades for parents, whereas it increased with increasing age of adolescents in friendship. Female friendship involved higher intimacy than male friendship. Only males perceived fathers to be more nurturant than mothers. Results are interpreted in terms of their consistency with the Piagetian/relational framework of social development and their implications for research concerning parental and peer conformity in adolescent socialization. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Early human experience: A family perspective.

Reviews recent research on the father–infant relationship. Those studies documenting changes in parent and infant behavior when the mother–infant dyad is transformed into the mother–father–infant triad are especially important to the study of early human experience, since they highlight the influence of the marital relationship on the parent–infant relationship. These investigations of "2nd-order effects" document the fact that inclusion of the father in the study of infancy creates a family system composed of marital and parent–child relations. The need for "wedding" the disciplines of family sociology and developmental psychology in their respective concerns for marital and parent–infant relationships is emphasized, and a transactional framework for examining early experience in the family system is proposed. Evidence from family sociology and developmental psychology is reviewed to illuminate influences within the family system during infancy and to stimulate interdisciplinary investigation. (3? ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The interpersonal structure of family interaction settings: Parent–adolescent relations in dyads and triads.

Observed parental interactive patterns in the presence (a triadic setting) and in the absence (a dyadic setting) of the spouse in 44 families with 16 female and 28 male early adolescents (approximately 13 yrs old). Findings indicate that in accordance with hypotheses, the presence of the father enhanced the quality of mother–son relations, whereas the presence of the mother reduced the quality of father–son relations. The presence of the spouse influenced the extent to which parents treated girls and boys differently: Mothers differentiated more between girls and boys in the presence of the spouse, whereas fathers differentiated more between girls and boys in the absence of the spouse. Relative to the dyad, parental role differentiation increased in the triad but only in families of boys. In demonstrating interdependencies among family relationships and the responsivity of parental behaviors to the interpersonal structure of interaction settings, the results support a systems model of family processes. Implications for the study of family relations and sex typing at early adolescence are discussed. (60 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Understanding parent-adolescent interactions: Perceptions of family members and outsiders.

To see whether adolescents view parent–child relationships more like their parents or more like outsiders, 41 mother–father–adolescent child triads were videotaped interacting over two tasks. Each family member then viewed both interactions and rated levels of anxiety, dominance, involvement, and friendliness, for each interactant. These same interactions were also watched and rated by another mother–father–adolescent triad (outsider family) who did not know the family. These interactions were then rated by a trained observer. For ratings of anxiety, dominance, involvement, and friendliness, analyses involved comparisons (a) between the insider and outsider families ratings, on correlations between insider family members and outsider family members with the trained observer, and (b) comparisons among the three types of observers. Ratings by members of the outsider family were generally more negative than those by members of the insider family. Ratings of self tended to be more objective than ratings of other family members. Ratings by the trained observer were more highly correlated with those of the outsider family, although differences between the means showed that trained observers used a similar metric to the insider family. The importance of looking at patterns of ratings as well as mean differences is emphasized. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Marital behavior and the security of preschooler–parent attachment relationships.

Longitudinal and concurrent relations among positive and negative marital behaviors in 2 contexts and preschoolers' security of attachment were examined for 53 families. At 6 months postpartum, couples were observed in their homes during couple discussion and family play. At 3 years, parents completed the Attachment Q-Set (E. Waters, 1987); marital and parenting behavior was also observed. Interparental hostility during family play at 6 months predicted less secure preschooler–mother attachment. Greater marital conflict at 3 years was associated with less security with mother and father, whereas positive marital engagement at 3 years was associated with more secure child-father attachment. Mothers' parenting partially explained the linkages between marital behavior and child–mother attachment. These results highlight the impact of positive and negative marital behaviors on children's abilities to use their parents as a secure base. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of early maternal employment on toddlers, mothers, and fathers.

Investigated the effects of early maternal employment on toddler development and mothers' and fathers' parenting styles using a family system orientation. The 75 families with firstborn 20-mo-olds varied in maternal employment status (nonemployed, part-, and full-time). Observations were conducted of qualitative dimensions of parent–child relationships (toddler–mother and toddler–father attachment and child–parent problem-solving behavior), quantitative dimensions of family time allocation, and parental childrearing attitudes. Each mother had been employed outside the home prior to the baby's birth. 24 mothers had not been employed since the birth of their children; 23 mothers were employed part-time. Results indicate that maternal employment was not related to toddler outcomes (security of attachment or problem-solving behavior). It was related to the amount of time mothers spent with their children and to some childrearing attitudes and behaviors of fathers and mothers. Findings highlight the importance of examining direct (mother–child) and indirect (father–child) effects in the study of early maternal employment and the ability of families to adapt to a variety of lifestyles. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Children's attributions in the family: The Children's Relationship Attribution Measure.

This study assessed children's attributions in parent–child relationships, examined their association with relationship positivity and behavior displayed toward the parent, determined whether depressive symptoms account for these associations, and investigated whether parent and child attributions are linked. Ten- to 12-year-old children (116 girls, 116 boys) completed several questionnaires and were observed during parent–child interactions. Children's attributions for parent behavior were related to positivity of the parent–child relationship and to self- and parent-reported conflict and observed behavior with the father. These associations were not due to children's depressive symptoms but potentially augment our understanding of the effect of depression on parent–child relationships. Finally, gender moderated the parent attribution–child attribution association. The results underscore the importance of children's perceptions of family processes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Mothers, fathers, and children in an urban park playground: A comparison of dyads and triads.

Observations were made of mother–child, father–child, and mother–father–child groups in an urban park playground. Results show great similarity between father–child dyads and mother–father–child triads, with mother–child dyads being consistently different. It is suggested that the similarities between triads and father-child dyads may occur because fathers and children rarely spend time alone together. Their dyadic rates of interaction and activity thus resemble those found in the triadic setting they usually experience. Group size and roles and relationships appear to exert a complex interactive effect on family-interaction patterns. The degree to which results might be situation-specific is considered, and implications for our understanding of family-interaction processes are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

L'influence du risque psychosocial, des conflits conjugaux et du stress parental sur la qualité de l'interaction mère-gar?on et mère-fille.

Studied the influence of familial and extrafamilial stressors on mother–son and mother–daughter interactions. Ss were 97 mothers and 99 normal preschool and school-age children (aged 31–70 mo). The mother–child dyads were observed in a laboratory setting in the presence of another unfamiliar mother–child pair. The quality of the mother–child interactions was analyzed in relation to questionnaire data on parental stress, marital adjustment, frequency of social contacts, and SES. Results from mother–daughter dyads and the mother–son dyads were compared. Several French-language instruments, including French versions of the Parental Stress Index (R. R. Abidin, 1983) and the Dyadic Adjustment Scale (G. B. Spanier, 1976), were used. (English abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Marital conflict and the quality of young children's peer play behavior: The mediating and moderating role of parent–child emotional reciprocity and attachment security.

Parent–child attachment security and dyadic measures of parent–child positive and negative emotional reciprocity were examined as possible mediators and moderators of the connection between marital conflict and children's peer play behavior. Eighty parents were observed in a laboratory play session with their 15- to 18-month-old child. Subsequently, at 36 months children were observed interacting with peers at their child care setting. Connections between marital conflict and children's positive peer interaction were mediated by mother–child attachment security, mother–child positive emotional reciprocity, and father–child negative emotional reciprocity. Connections between marital conflict and children's negative peer interaction were mediated by mother–child positive emotional reciprocity and father–child attachment security. Parent–child attachment security and negative emotional reciprocity emerged as important moderators of the connection between marital conflict and children's peer play behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Using the Marschak Interaction Method Rating System for Chinese families: Relationship between parent-child interaction pattern and child's social behavior.

This study investigated the use of the Marschak Interaction Method Rating System (MIMRS) in assessing parent–child interaction patterns and its relationship with preschool children's social behavior in a Chinese sample. Fifty-two preschoolers and their parents (either mother or father) participated in the study. The MIMRS demonstrated moderate to high internal consistency. There was also a moderate positive correlation between the MIMRS and the Kinship Centre Attachment Questionnaire (Kappenberg & Halpern, 2006). With reference to parent–child interaction and the child's social behavior, a negative relationship was identified between child anger/aggressive behavior and parent's nurturing toward his or her child. In addition, a child's demonstration of exploratory behavior, reciprocity with parent, and regulatory capacities were positively related to that child's social competence and negatively related to the child's anger/aggressive behavior. The practical uses of the MIMRS as a screening tool for working with parents and children in a non-Western culture are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Political violence and child adjustment in Northern Ireland: Testing pathways in a social–ecological model including single-and two-parent families.

Moving beyond simply documenting that political violence negatively impacts children, we tested a social–ecological hypothesis for relations between political violence and child outcomes. Participants were 700 mother–child (M = 12.1 years, SD = 1.8) dyads from 18 working-class, socially deprived areas in Belfast, Northern Ireland, including single- and two-parent families. Sectarian community violence was associated with elevated family conflict and children's reduced security about multiple aspects of their social environment (i.e., family, parent–child relations, and community), with links to child adjustment problems and reductions in prosocial behavior. By comparison, and consistent with expectations, links with negative family processes, child regulatory problems, and child outcomes were less consistent for nonsectarian community violence. Support was found for a social–ecological model for relations between political violence and child outcomes among both single- and two-parent families, with evidence that emotional security and adjustment problems were more negatively affected in single-parent families. The implications for understanding social ecologies of political violence and children's functioning are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)