Interaction of person and situation effects for chronic mental patients: A two-year follow-up.

In a longitudinal 2-yr follow-up of the patients in the present author and G. L. Paul's (see record 1975-31978-001) analysis of the behavior of chronic mental patients, the present study examined the interactive contribution of person and situation dimensions to the ongoing behavior of 32 patients after prolonged exposure to 2 different ward environments (milieu and social learning). Behavior was rated with the Time Sample Behavioral Checklist and the Staff–Resident Interaction Chronograph. From the observations, a Cognitive Distortion Index and a Social Interaction Index were calculated. Results indicate that the patterning of person, situation, and behavior domain effects was quite stable over a 2-yr period, although the absolute strength of situation effects was greater than in the prior study. In addition, the results provide further evidence that ward environments differentially moderate the Person by Situation interactions. (9 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Stability and accuracy of metamemory in adulthood and aging: A longitudinal analysis.

The stability and accuracy of memory perceptions in 2 longitudinal samples was examined. Sample 1 consisted of 231 adults (22–78 years) tested twice over 2 years. Sample 2 consisted of 234 adults (55–86 years) tested 3 times over 6 years. Measures of perceived and actual memory change were obtained. A primary focus was whether perceptions of memory change stem from application of an implicit theory about aging and memory or from accurate monitoring of actual changes in performance. Individual differences in metamemory were highly stable over time. Results suggested at least some accurate monitoring of memory in Sample 2, in which actual change was greatest. However, the overall pattern of results is largely consistent with predictions derived from an implicit theory hypothesis. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Stability and change in adult intelligence: II. Simultaneous analysis of longitudinal means and covariance structures.

We analyzed data on psychometric intelligence from the Seattle Longitudinal Study, simultaneously estimating longitudinal factors, their covariance structure, and their mean levels. Data on five Thurstone Primary Mental Abilities subtests were available for 412 adults, ages 22–70 at first test, who were tested three times at 7-year intervals. A previous longitudinal factor analysis had shown high stability of individual differences (covariance stability) in general intelligence for three adult age groups. We extended that model to estimate factor means. All three age groups showed high levels of covariance stability, but differed sharply in their mean profiles. The young group showed increasing levels of general intelligence, the middle-aged group had stable levels of intelligence, and the old group showed salient, approximately linear, decline. The patterns of stability in middle-age, followed by mean decline and high covariance stability in old age, suggest a normative developmental transition from a stability pattern to a decline pattern of general intelligence, with the inflection point occurring somewhere around age 60. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Moral development in Bahamian school children: A 3-year examination of Kohlberg's stages of moral development.

Interviewed 426 Bahamian male and female school children aged 8–17 yrs over a 3-yr period utilizing L. Kohlberg's (1969) moral dilemmas to test the hypotheses of cultural universality and the age relatedness of the Kohlberg stage sequence in the development of moral reasoning. Longitudinal, cross-sectional, and sequential strategies were utilized. Results indicate a general upward stage movement within and between age groups. There was an advance in moral reasoning across subsequent cohorts at the same ages. There was little evidence of any sex differences, and no individuals reasoned beyond Stage 3. Results are interpreted as supporting the hypotheses. The major source of change was due to time-of-testing effects. There was additional developmental change influenced by age and cohort factors. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive performance inconsistency: Intraindividual change and variability.

Although many studies have examined inconsistency of cognitive performance, few have examined how inconsistency changes over time. 91 older adults (age 52 to 79) were tested weekly for 36 consecutive weeks on a series of multitrial memory speed (i.e., letter recognition) tasks. A number of multivariate techniques were used to examine how individuals' level of inconsistency changed across weeks and how this change was related to interindividual differences in age and intelligence. Results indicated that (a) inconsistency of performance is a construct separate from the underlying performance ability (i.e., memory speed); (b) inconsistency reduces exponentially with practice; (c) individuals with higher scores on tests of fluid general intelligence (Gf) reached lower asymptotic levels of inconsistency compared to lower scorers; and (d) after controlling for the systematic effects of practice, variability in inconsistency from week-to-week was more pronounced for individuals with lower Gf scores compared to individuals with higher scores. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Behavioral correlates of mental growth: Birth to thirty-six years.

Reports findings of the Berkeley (California) Growth Study, a 36-yr longitudinal study of mental development. 74 full-term, healthy infants of White English-speaking parents, were studied over 7 mo. 63 Ss were followed for at least 3 yrs, 48 Ss were seen regularly over 18 yrs, and 54 Ss were interviewed and tested at age 36 yrs. Measures included newly developed tests of 1st-yr mental precocity, the Block Q-Sort, and the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS). Results reflect stability over the 36 yrs in both personality variables and mental abilities. Boys' high verbal scores correlated with calmness, positive responsiveness, and activeness: Girls' high verbal scores correlated with shyness at 10–24 mo and possibly unhappiness at 10–22 mo. While boys' behaviors and intelligence correlated with maternal behavior in the 1st 3 yrs through age 18 yrs, girls' corresponded to parental abilities. This suggests that girls are more resilient and less permanently affected by early experiences. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationship between age and aspects of depression: Consistency and reliability across two longitudinal studies.

In this study, the authors examined cross-sectional and longitudinal age and gender differences in each of the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale's 4 subscales of depressive symptomatology. Two independent studies (Sample 1 = 2,076; Sample 2 = 943) were used for purposes of establishing stability of findings. Results indicate a reasonable degree of stability among adults under 70 years of age. However, there were significant age-related increases in somatic symptoms and lack of well-being after approximately 70 years of age, whereas symptoms related to depressed affect and interpersonal problems remained stable. Notably, depressive affect symptoms remained stable given significant age-related somatic changes. The addition of comorbid physical illness to the analysis did not reduce the association between age and depressive symptoms, indicating that part of the association was not substantially accounted for by physical health. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Fourteen-year cohort-sequential analyses of adult intellectual development.

Provides a comprehensive analysis of data from 412 Ss (mean ages 22–67 yrs at 1st test) on the Primary Mental Abilities Test. Ss took part in 1 of 2 longitudinal sequences, 1956–1970 or 1963–1977. Comparable data are also reported on cross-sectional sequences collected in 1956, 1963, 1970, and 1977. A decline in intelligence became clearly evident after age 60 yrs, with from a third to a half standard deviation decrement over a 14-yr period. Contrary to earlier reports (e.g., K. W. Schaie and I. A. Parham, 1977), small but significant decrements were noted over the 53–67 yr age range. Cohort/sequential cohort effects, which were not attributable to age changes, were found for several subtests. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A longitudinal analysis of the turnover process.

A repeated-measures longitudinal design was used to analyze the turnover process among a cohort of 1,445 US Marine Corps enlistees. Behavioral intentions, expected utility for both military and civilian roles, and satisfaction (Job Diagnostic Survey) were tracked over a 4-yr period. Significant predictors of early turnover were found at the time of organizational entry and were indicative of individual and anticipatory socialization differences. Differences predicting subsequent turnover and reenlistment emerged over time, as evidenced by significant Time Group?×?Time effects. Results demonstrate the temporal process underlying the turnover phenomena. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Validation of language subtypes in learning disabled children.

Hypothesized that children characterized by deficits in narrative skills, relative to other language skills (e.g., syntactic and semantic), would be most at risk for general academic problems, especially in reading comprehension. Using data from a previous longitudinal study by the 1st author and J. D. McKinney (see record 1985-02522-001), different subtypes of language disability were identified in 63 6- and 7-yr-old learning disabled (LD) children. Comparison data had been obtained from 66 non-LD children matched to the LD sample on age, race, and sex. Results, obtained with hierarchical cluster analysis, indicate that 6 language subtypes were derived and that these were both internally consistent and externally valid, being differentially linked to reading and math achievement over a 3-yr period. Narrative ability was shown to be relatively important in predicting academic outcomes. The 3 subtypes showing the poorest academic outcomes had the highest relative scores in syntax and semantics. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Analysis of longitudinal data within accelerated longitudinal designs.

Using latent growth curve methodology and combining information from 4 different overlapping age cohorts, each measured at 1-yr intervals over a 3-yr period, a single developmental trajectory for adolescent alcohol use was formed spanning 12–17 years of age (n?=?461). At the same time, data collected from the same study sample on a single cohort (n?=?81) over 6 annual assessments (ages 12–17) was examined to determine whether the accelerated design adequately approximated the developmental trend within a true longitudinal design observed over 6 yrs of data collection. Comparison of separate models and a combined multisample model revealed no significant differences between the 2 designs in their representation of initial status and growth, as well as similar effects for the covariates of gender, deviance, and parent alcohol use on initial status and growth. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The structure of psychological distress and well-being in general populations.

Describes the development of the Mental Health Inventory (MHI), a 38-item measure of psychological distress and well-being, developed for use in general populations. The MHI was fielded in 4 large samples (N?=?5089) of Ss aged 13–69 yrs. One data set was used to explore the MHI's factor structure, and confirmatory factor analyses were used for cross validation. Results support a hierarchical factor model composed of a general underlying psychological distress vs well-being factor; a higher order structure defined by 2 correlated factors—Psychological Distress and Well-Being; and 5 correlated lower order factors—Anxiety, Depression, Emotional Ties, General Positive Affect, and Loss of Behavioral Emotional Control. Summated rating scales produced high internal consistency estimates and substantial stability over a 1-yr interval. Results provide strong psychometric support for a hierarchical model and scoring options ranging from 5 distinct constructs to reliance on 1 summary index. (36 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Adult life span changes in immediate visual memory and verbal intelligence.

A sample of 558 women and 1,163 men 17 to 102 years old, screened for neurodegenerative and neuropsychiatric disease, was administered tests of immediate visual memory (Benton Visual Retention Test) and crystallized intelligence (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale Vocabulary subtest) from 1 to 5 times over 27.7 years. Cross-sectional and longitudinal evidence led to the conclusion that the 65-74-year decade was a watershed for decremental changes in immediate visual memory and verbal intelligence. Age accounted for considerably less variance in vocabulary than in immediate memory. The proportion of individuals whose longitudinal trajectories were contrary to group trends decreased substantially with increased age; observed age changes remained when analyses were restricted to individuals who had perfect or near-perfect mental status scores. Selected neuronal loss and slower reproduction times were considered as possible causes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Another look at the job satisfaction-life satisfaction relationship.

The relationship between job satisfaction and life satisfaction has been heavily researched over the years. In spite of this research interest, results have not proved conclusive in demonstrating the causal nature of the relationship. In the present study, a causal model was hypothesized and tested that involved simultaneous consideration of cross-sectional and longitudinal effects between job and life satisfaction. This type of analysis has not previously been conducted and allows the strongest conclusions to date regarding the causality between these constructs. Results based on a national probability sample of workers indicate that job and life satisfaction were significantly and reciprocally related. The cross-sectional results suggest a relatively strong relationship between job and life satisfaction, but the longitudinal results a weaker relationship over a 5-yr period, particularly with respect to the effect of job satisfaction on life satisfaction. The meaning of these results in the context of past research on the job satisfaction–life satisfaction relationship is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of client-centered psychotherapy with schizophrenic patients: Nine years pretherapy and nine years posttherapy hospitalization.

The long-term effects on patient hospitalization of therapeutic conditions (accurate empathy, nonpossessive warmth, and genuineness) offered by therapists were compared to a control (no-therapy) group (N = 16) in a population of 32 schizophrenics. The study dealt with hospitalization experience over a 9-yr period prior to entry into therapy research and a 9-yr period after entry into therapy research. Findings indicate no overall mean differences but significant differences in trend tests across time. There was some evidence of negative effects from low levels of therapist-offered therapeutic conditions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Task difficulty as a moderator of long-range prediction.

Used longitudinal studies of career progress in terms of salary or position attainment to test J. Weitz's (see 40:11) hypothesis that personality variables should predict early in time for high-aptitude Ss and late in time for low-aptitude Ss. Results for 396 maintenance technician trainees followed-up over a 9-yr period and 103 sales trainees followed up over an 11-yr period supported the hypothesis. The Ascendancy scale of the Gordon Personal Profile was found to predict the progress criterion at least 3 yr. earlier for those high, compared to those low on initial training performance. The predictability for low-aptitude Ss appeared to be more complex suggesting that the task, "getting ahead" contained additional personality correlated elements for the latter group. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Pathways through adolescent smoking: A 7-year longitudinal grouping analysis.

This study examined longitudinal patterns of smoking among students (N = 852) followed from 6th through 12th grades using longitudinal grouping analysis. Six patterns (clusters) were identified: nonsmokers, quitters, experimenters, early escalators, late escalators, and continuous smokers. Baseline (6th-grade) differences in associated risk factors were examined. Growth curve modeling revealed meaningful intercluster differences in risk factor trends over the study period. In general, nonsmokers had the fewest baseline risk factors and slowest increase in risk factors, whereas continuous smokers had higher baseline and more rapidly increasing trends in risk factors. Results suggest that some clusters may respond to population-based antismoking interventions, whereas others (early escalators and continuous smokers) will probably require more focused interventions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Schizophrenic intelligence, symptoms, and release from the hospital.

Used the WAIS and Inpatient Multidimensional Psychiatric Scale to assess changes in intelligence and symptoms over a 1-yr period in 64 male chronic schizophrenics (an additional 32 Ss were assessed only at the end of the 1-yr period). Hospital status 6 yr. later identified Ss who had been discharged successfully and those still hospitalized. Ss who improved in symptoms gained in test scores. Short-term symptomatic improvement showed no significant relationship to discharge within the next 6 yr., whereas short-term gains in intelligence predicted subsequent discharge to a highly significant degree (p     

Temporal stability and replicability of a workplace stress and coping model for managerial women: A multiwave panel study.

Stability and replicability of a stress-coping model were tested with data collected from 230 managerial women 8 times over a 1-yr period. One year later, 135 women who remained in the study completed 3 additional assessments. Tests of mean stability, stability of individual differences, and factorial invariance revealed that virtually all constructs exhibited strong mean stability and that all multi-indicator constructs possessed stable factor loadings. The women were consistent in the way they described themselves over time on all constructs except Appraisals. Disengagement Coping, Appraisals, and Distress were affected more by an underlying trait not accounted for in the model than was Engagement Coping. Replicability indicated that the model reliably represented the relationships among the measures over a 2-yr interval. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)