Illusory correlation and the maintenance of stereotypic beliefs.

Investigated the role of cognitive processes in the maintenance of social stereotypes in 3 experiments with 73 male and 77 female high school and undergraduate students and adults. Ss read sets of sentences in which the members of different occupational groups were described by pairs of trait adjectives. In 2 experiments, the trait adjectives were either consistent (CT) with stereotypic beliefs about one of the occupational groups or unrelated to the group's stereotype; in the 3rd study, traits were either inconsistent (ICT) with or unrelated to a group's stereotype. Different correlational relationships between the traits and occupational groups were built into the sets of sentences, but, in each case, the CT or ICT traits described the members of each occupational group as often as matched traits unrelated to the groups' stereotypes. Ss estimated how frequently each of the trait adjectives had described members of each of the occupational groups. Each study revealed systematic biases in the Ss' judgments so that the perceived correlation between traits and occupations was more congruent with existing stereotypic beliefs than the actual correlation. Findings indicate a cognitive bias in the processing of new information about social groups that is mediated by existing stereotypes and that provides a basis for explaining the persistence of stereotypes in the absence of confirming evidence. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Role of out-group cues in determining social identity.

Examined the role of out-group cues in determining social identity and guiding behavior in 2 experiments with 131 undergraduates. In Exp I, Ss were exposed to a cue either of an in-group (Ss' college), a relevant out-group (a rival college), or an irrelevant out-group (a baseball team). Ss examined a list of words and were later asked to recognize those they had seen from a larger list in which words related to the 3 groups were embedded. Results indicate that Ss made more false recognitions of in-group related words when a relevant out-group was salient than when an irrelevant out-group was salient. Exp II tested a behavioral implication of Exp I: Out-group salience increases adherence to an in-group norm. In the 1st phase of Exp II, Ss were divided into 2 groups and deliberated 2 civil suits. Ss' in-group favored the plaintiffs for both cases. Ss were divided into new groups for the 2nd phase, and the same procedure was followed. This time, however, the in-group favored the defendants. In the 3rd phase, Ss were exposed to a cue either of the out-group in Phase 1 or Phase 2. Ss' judgments for 2 new cases were biased in the direction of the norm of the in-group that was associated with the salient out-group. Ss favored the plaintiff (or defendant) when the 1st (or 2nd) out-group was salient. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Ethnic stereotypes: The significance of consensus.

Investigated whether the degree of consensus in trait attribution to ethnic groups has any particular meaning to the individual. Canadian 9th and 12th graders (n = 36) were presented with traits previously found in the stereotypes about different groups, and asked to identify the ethnic group so characterized. 3 independent variables were manipulated: consensus of the attributes, age of the Ss, and the number of attributes presented. Dependent variables included the accuracy and the perceived difficulty of identification. Results indicate that the degree of consensus in the stereotype had considerable information value to the Ss. This suggests that stereotypes generally develop from information available to a community, and that the consensus noted in stereotype assessment procedures reflects the consistency of this information. (French summary) (16 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-punitive running in the rat following start box fear conditioning: Shock intensity effects.

In Phase 1 of an experiment with 240 female hooded rats, buzzer-alone presentations or buzzer-shock pairings were given in the start box of a 4-ft straight alley. Phase 2 consisted of runway test trials during which there was no shock in the alley or there was shock in the last 2 ft. Shock levels employed in each phase were 0, 40, 53, and 70 v. All Phase 1 nonshock Ss ceased running by Trial 3. In general, for Ss shocked in Phase 1, running speed and the number of Ss completing all 60 trials were greater for shocked than nonshocked Phase 2 conditions. In addition, the stronger the Phase 1 shock, the greater the number completing all trials and the faster the speeds. Phase 2 shock intensity was not a significant factor. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of multiple social categories on stereotyping.

Examined the cognitive processes underlying stereotyping, and the effects of multiple social categories in impression formation. 60 Canadian students (aged 17–29 yrs) assessed the stereotypes of men, women, 20 or 70 yr olds, and French or English Canadians. Ss were then introduced to 8 target individuals representing combinations of gender, age and ethnicity, followed by a memory test. Stereotype judgments were relatively more automatic than nonstereotype judgments. Individuals tended to be perceived in terms of their gender and age; this effect was more pronounced on stereotype traits than on the nonstereotype ones. Memory was found to be better for age and gender than for ethnicity, and the speed for making such judgments followed the same pattern. Results support the view that individuals are perceived in terms of stereotypes and suggest that certain salient characteristics will be more influential in a particular context. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Instrumental response persistence following induction of hippocampal theta frequency during fixed-ratio responding in rats.

Four groups of 6 male albino rats (24 Ss) were used to investigate the relationship between hippocampal theta and instrumental response persistence. All Ss were first trained on a discrete-trial FR-10 schedule of reinforcement. In Phase 2, hippocampal theta was induced via electrical stimulation of medial septal pacemaker cells through implanted electrodes at the beginning of 50% of the 8 daily FR-10 trials for experimental Ss, while stimulated-control Ss received 200-Hz medial septal stimulation which does not induce theta. The 2 remaining control groups continued as in the training phase. In Phase 3, FR-10 responding was extinguished in all Ss. Induction of hippocampal theta depressed responding and led to greater resistance to extinction in the experimental group compared with the other groups. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

U-shaped functions in a shock-escape task.

Presents results of 5 experiments with Sprague-Dawley rats. In Exp I, 136 Ss given limited training on a light-discrimination, shock-escape task (Phase 1) were divided into groups and retrained to criterion (Phase 2) from 30 min to 17 days later. A U-shaped retraining curve was obtained with best performance at 3 and 5 days. U-shaped curves were also found in Exps II–IV when the light cue was reversed for Phase 2 and when shock alone or an injection of epinephrine was given in lieu of Phase 1 training. In Exp V, an injection of physostigmine was found to improve maze performance. It is suggested that the low point of the U-shaped curve reflected a rebound period of parasympathetic dominance following a period of high sympathetic activity associated with the stress of painful shocks. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Comparison of social problem solving of children from open and traditional classrooms: A two-year longitudinal study.

Examined the hypothesized relation between open classrooms and children's social problem-solving performance by comparing, over a 2-yr period, the social problem-solving cognitions of 2 groups of children who had attended open and traditional classrooms, respectively, for 3 yrs. Ss in Phase 1 were 60 children (average age 9.5 yrs) from open classrooms and 60 matched chidren from traditional classrooms; 40 Ss from open classrooms and 40 Ss from traditional classrooms who had participated in Phase 1 were eligible to serve in Phase 2. The 8 open and 8 traditional classrooms used in the study were found to be different treatment groups based on ratings of openness and restrictiveness. The prediction of a relation between the open classroom and greater social problem-solving cognitions in children was based on previous research suggesting that the social-cognitive climate of the open classroom is more conducive to children's independent decision making and initiative. Multivariate analyses of repeated measures showed that open-classroom Ss had higher scores in social problem-solving cognitions and correspondingly higher scores in self-esteem and ego-strength. Educational implications of the findings are discussed in terms of the social-cognitive climate of open and restrictive classrooms and their effect on children's social-cognitive development. Limitations of the nonequivalent, nonrandomized group design used in the present study are also discussed. (48 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of diagnosticity in stereotype formation: Perceiving group means and variances.

Three experiments tested the hypotheses that while forming stereotypes of social groups, people abstract the central tendency and variability of different attribute dimensions to determine which ones best differentiate the groups and that more differentiating dimensions are more likely to become stereotypical in the sense of becoming strongly associated with the groups in memory. Supporting these hypotheses, Exp 1 found that, after viewing behaviors performed by members of 2 groups, Ss characterized the groups more in terms of attribute dimensions indicating larger differences between the central tendencies of the groups, and Exp 2 showed that this effect did not occur when Ss formed impressions of only 1 group. Exp 3 found that Ss also characterized groups more in terms of attribute dimensions indicating lower within-group variability. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Design and interpretability of road signs.

To determine ways to improve road sign interpretability in the United States, 30 European signs were printed on cards and shown to several groups of Americans students of about 30 Ss each. There were 5 phases: "The first two phases employed different methods for determining the interpretability of 30 of the European signs prior to training… . The third phase was an attempt to assess the effect of limited experience with the signs on their interpretability. The fourth phase was designed to discover the stereotypes for sign meanings. The fifth phase was concerned with determining the interpretability of signs derived from Phase IV, i.e., the interpretability of signs based on the stereotypes." Some could be used here without prior instructions, however, to apply most of the European signs to America would require a minimal degree of prior familiarization. From Psyc Abstracts 36:01:3LM30B. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Between a rock and a hard place: Self-concept regulating and communicative properties of distancing behaviors.

Investigated 2 properties of distancing behaviors—a class of deliberate and inadvertent behaviors that insulate persons from the consequences of negative self-discrepant behavior and signal that they should not be associated with that behavior. In Phase 1, high-choice Ss in a multiple audience variation of the induced compliance paradigm who read counterattitudinal essays on affirmative action in the presence of a Black woman did not show typical dissonance-induced attitude change. Phase 2 found that this absence of attitude change was significantly related to the extent to which Ss distanced themselves from their essays before reading them. In Phase 3, distancing behaviors also served as discounting cues for naive observers and were significantly related to their ratings of Ss' attitudes. These results are discussed in terms of the self-regulatory and communicative roles of distancing behaviors in social interaction. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Structure of gender stereotypes: Interrelationships among components and gender label.

Assessed the extent to which gender label and various types of component information influenced the judgments made by 458 undergraduates in 3 experiments regarding the existence of other gender-related characteristics not specifically implied by the provided information. In Exp I, 42 male and 65 female undergraduates were given gender and role information about a person and asked to estimate the probability that the person had a number of other characteristics or engaged in a number of other behaviors. In Exp II, 84 male and 92 female Ss followed the previous procedure but were given traits rather than roles of the person. Results show that gender stereotypes consisted of a number of separate components. In Exp III, each of 4 gender stereotype components was presented in a within-Ss design, and 83 male and 88 female Ss made judgments about each component. Results show that information about one stereotype component can implicate other components; specific component information may outweigh gender identification; and components differ in their ability to implicate other components of gender stereotypes, with physical appearance playing a dominant role. (32 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Modeling and instructions in training for counselor empathy.

Assessed the relative contributions of modeling and instructions to training of counselor empathy in a factorial design incorporating 2 instruction conditions (instructions or no instructions) and 3 modeling conditions (high-empathy model, low-empathy model, or no model). Ss were 68 clergymen from various religious denominations. Ss wrote responses to a taped client in Phase 1, a training phase, and conducted an interview with a client (actor) in Phase 2, a generalization phase. Instructions had no effect on empathy offered by Ss, but Ss hearing a high-empathy model showed significantly higher empathy in Phase 1 responses than all other Ss. Findings were not significant in Phase 2. Reasons for lack of generalization and implications for further research and training are noted. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)