Visual Spatial Learning Test: Normative data and further validation.

The Visual Spatial Learning Test (VSLT) is a nonverbal memory test that requires minimal language and motor abilities. Normative data are presented for VSLT measures of learning, delayed memory, and intrusion errors for 455 Ss (aged 56–97 yrs). The normative sample is an open community sample that was not screened for memory impairment using psychometric procedures. Validity of these normative data was then assessed by application to a group of patients with dementia. Sequential application of cutoff scores for intrusion errors, learning, and delayed memory correctly identified 87.9% of demented and 78.9% of normal Ss. The VSLT appears to be a test of recognition and cued memory that may be appropriately included in a psychometric battery for the assessment of dementia. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Measurement and training of AVC discrimination skills: Independent confirmation and extension.

Describes the AVC test of discrimination skills developed by N. Kerr et al (see record 1981-23872-001) and presents 2 validation studies of the test. In Study 1, 135 mentally handicapped Ss (aged 17–60 yrs) were assessed on all 6 levels of the AVC and 42 Ss were retested at 3-mo follow-up. Results are consistent with the findings of Kerr et al and support the AVC's reliability and resistance of AVC behaviors to change without systematic training. Study 2 examined the potential of the AVC for predicting performance of 6 severely retarded Ss (aged 21–50; Stanford-Binet IQs 30–36) who were learning a vocational assembly task. Findings reveal that brief training sessions were as effective as extended ones in teaching the tasks and that the AVC was an accurate predictor of Ss' performance. (5 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of previous performance on evaluations of present performance.

In Study 1, 82 undergraduates viewed 3 videotaped lectures presented by the same lecturer. Ss in the good-performance condition viewed 2 good lectures, followed by a lecture of average quality. Ss in the poor-performance condition viewed 2 poor lectures, followed by the same average lecture. Results show significant contrast effects both for ratings of the frequency of several critical behaviors and for performance evaluations. Ss in the poor-performance condition assigned more favorable behavior ratings and higher performance evaluation ratings to the 3rd (average) lecture than did Ss in the good-performance condition. In Study 2, 71 Ss were used to test the hypothesis that memory biases were responsible for the contrast effects observed in Study 1. Ss viewed the same videotapes but rated the 3rd tape from memory the day after viewing the tape. Results show weak, nonsignificant contrast effects, suggesting that memory biases were not sufficient to explain the results of Study 1. (45 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-schemas, possible selves, and competent performance.

College students were classified as either schematic for being a good problem solver (i.e., they believed they were very good in this area, and this ability was very important to their self-evaluation) or aschematic for this ability (i.e., they believed they had moderate ability in this area, and this ability was of moderate to low importance to their self-evaluation). In Study 1, schematic and aschematic Ss performed equally well in an initial problem-solving test; however, aschematic Ss did not enjoy the task and had negative possible selves related to logical ability active in working memory. In Study 2, aschematic Ss maintained competent performance on a problem-solving test only when given failure feedback on an earlier test. The results point to the importance of the self-concept in the development and maintenance of competence. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Preclinical cognitive markers of dementia of the Alzheimer type.

56 nondemented elderly normal control (NC) Ss were studied at 3 consecutive annual administrations of the California Verbal Learning Test (CVLT). NC Ss with a positive family history for progressive dementia performed significantly worse than individuals with a negative family history for progressive dementia on several quantitative and qualitative indices of the CVLT and were more likely to undergo changes in diagnostic status over time (i.e., develop dementia of the Alzheimer type [DAT]). Stepwise discriminant function analyses of critical CVLT indices of the NC Ss and of 25 patients with mild DAT classified 5 NC Ss as DAT patients 1–2 yrs prior to their eventual changes in diagnostic status. Results suggest that specific memory deficits may serve as preclinical cognitive markers for DAT, especially in individuals with risk factors for DAT such as a positive family history. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Memory for spatial information in young and old adults.

Evaluated the claim that memory for spatial information is automatic. 46 18–35 yr olds and 49 51–80 yr olds studied a map containing 12 structures. Half the Ss in each age group were asked to remember both the structures and their locations (intentional learning), and the remaining half were led to believe they would be tested only on the structures (incidental learning). Both age and test expectations affected memory for the locations of structures, with older Ss and Ss in the incidental groups performing more poorly. It is concluded that memory for spatial location is not automatic. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Differentiation of Alzheimer's, Huntington's, and Parkinson's disease patients on the basis of verbal learning characteristics.

Examined the degree to which patients with dementia could be differentiated on the basis of their verbal learning characteristics. 83 patients with Parkinson's disease (PD), 22 with Huntington's disease (HD), and 22 with probable Alzheimer's disease were administered the California Verbal Learning Test. PD and HD Ss were divided into subgroups to control for the severity of overall memory impairment. Intrusions, perseverations, and rate of forgetting were the most discriminating variables. Profile differences between HD and PD were sufficiently robust to separate these 2 groups. Results do not support a simplistic cortical–subcortical dichotomy; rather, individual dementing syndromes have unique patterns of verbal learning performance that are distinct from one another. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Memory for activities: Adult age differences and intentionality.

24 17–24 yr olds and 24 56–76 yr olds were tested for memory of activities on a series of tasks (e.g., letter cancellation and anagrams) that varied along the rote–cognitive dimension. Half the Ss in each age group were forewarned of the subsequent memory test (intentional learning); the remaining Ss were not forewarned (incidental learning). An overall age difference, favoring young Ss, was found. However, the magnitude of the age difference varied across activities, being slight for cognitively demanding tasks and pronounced for less-demanding activities. Memory was unaffected by the forewarning variable for both age groups. Results are interpreted in terms of an age deficit in the retrieval of memory traces established by activities, with cognitively demanding activities yielding more distinctive and therefore more retrievable traces than less-demanding activities for older adults. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Episodic spatial memory in adulthood.

Two experiments examined age-related differences in memory for spatial location information in a museum exhibit (Exp 1) and in a secretarial office (Exp 2). In Exp 1, Ss were the visitors to the exhibit (N?=?302, 15–74 yrs of age), and memory was assessed using a map test. In Exp 2, Ss were 64 young adults (M?=?21.2 yrs) and 32 older adults (M?=?71.2 yrs), and memory was assessed using both a map test and a relocation test. The relocation test required Ss to replace the to-be-remembered targets where they appeared at study. Exp 1 showed an age-related decline in spatial memory performance, and it placed the onset of this decline in the 6th decade of life. Exp 2 showed an age-related decline on both tests, but age effects were smaller on the relocation test than on the map test, and when Ss knew that spatial memory would be tested than when they were not informed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The relationship between visual memory function and lesions detected by magnetic resonance imaging after closed head injury.

45 patients (aged 16–73 yrs) with closed head injuries were followed up 6 mo postinjury with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and neuropsychological assessments. Ss were tested on visual and verbal measures of short-term memory and learning: pattern span, pattern learning, path span, path learning, digit span, and digit learning. Visual memory for patterns and paths was tested using a recall procedure. Compared with 22 controls (aged 15–70 yrs), Ss were significantly impaired on pattern span. Ss were also significantly impaired on measures of path learning and digit learning. Performance on the visual memory tasks was related to a rating of ventricular enlargement derived from MRI. It appears that diffuse damage remains of importance in predicting neuropsychological impairment in head injury. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Classifying college students as depressed or nondepressed using the Beck Depression Inventory: An empirical analysis.

In Study 1, the classification of 150 college students as nondepressed or mildly or moderately depressed was compared using Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) scores obtained on 2 occasions, either on the same day or 1 wk later. Whereas the overall test–retest reliability coefficients were acceptable, particularly when both administrations occurred on the same day, the consistency of classification of Ss into the mild and moderate levels of depression was poor. In an attempt to determine the factors contributing to the poor classification consistency, a 2nd study with 207 Ss compared the effect of exposure to the BDI on subsequent BDI responses. Ss who completed the BDI on 2 occasions showed significantly lower BDI scores compared to Ss exposed to an alternate depression inventory (the Self-Rating Depression Scale [SRDS]) or no prior questionnaire. In addition, a large percentage of Ss classified as moderately depressed following the initial BDI administration failed to be classified within the moderate categories on retesting the same day. Ss tested using the SRDS maintained the same depression classification when retested on the BDI. Item analyses failed to reveal significantly different amounts of change among individual BDI items. (39 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Hypnosis, task-motivating instructions, and learning performance.

40 Ss, including 30 who had been previously rated as suggestible and 10 as nonsuggestible, were pretested and then retested on equivalent forms of 3 learning tasks: digit symbol substitution, memory for words, and abstract reasoning. All Ss received the pretests in the same way. The 30 suggestible Ss were retested under 1 of the following 3 experimental treatments with 10 Ss assigned at random to each treatment: task-motivating instructions, hypnotic induction procedure with task-motivating instructions, and control. The 10 nonsuggestible Ss were retested under a task-motivating-instructions treatment. Analyses of covariance indicated that (a) task-motivating instructions given alone or following a hypnotic induction procedure did not significantly affect performance on the memory for words or abstract reasoning tasks; and (b) task-motivating instructions produced a comparable enhancement of performance on the digit symbol substitution task in hypnotized and nonhypnotized Ss and in suggestible and nonsuggestible Ss. (33 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effect of riddle structure on children's comprehension of riddles.

A classification of children's riddles was constructed, and 2 studies were conducted to test an implied developmental sequence of comprehension. In Exp I, riddles and jokes were collected and classified from 575 children of Grades 1–8 and Grade 10. As predicted, riddles based on conceptual tricks were most popular for the youngest Ss; riddles based on language ambiguity, for intermediate ages; and riddles based on absurdity, for the oldest groups. In Exp II, 208 Ss of Grades 1, 3, 6, 10, and college freshmen were presented with selected riddles from the 3 riddle categories to test for the predicted sequence of comprehension. Comprehension was measured by assessing the S's explanations of riddle answers and performance on a multiple-choice task. S's guesses to riddle questions and memory of the riddle answers were also recorded. Results show that explanations of the riddles were mostly justifications, in which the S demonstrated how the answer of the riddle was plausible. Ss were less likely to explain how the riddle was tricky. Guesses to the riddle questions were mostly realistic, particularly for the younger Ss. Memory of riddle answers was good for all grades, virtually perfect by Grade 6. Results show a general confirmation of the predictions for the classification. Conceptual-trick riddles were comprehended first, language ambiguity riddles at an intermediate age, and absurd riddles were comprehended only by the oldest Ss. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of locus of control, cueing, and relevance on memory for passages.

24 internal and 24 external (Rotter's Internal–External Locus of Control Scale) undergraduates read 6 passages representing 3 operationally-defined levels of relevance under either a cued (informed of memory test) or uncued (not informed of memory test) condition. On a retention test 24 hrs later, internals scored consistently higher than externals. Ss performed best on material of high relevance, with their scores declining systematically on material of medium and low relevance. Results do not support the contention derived from social learning theory that internals would only be superior to externals on relevant material under uncued instruction. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Bizarre imagery: The misremembered mnemonic.

Conducted 2 experiments with 56 undergraduates to measure the effects of bizarre imagery and image interaction on the brief and long-term memory of word pairs. Ss in Exp I performed an incidental learning task and were administered free- and cued-recall tests either 5 min or 1 wk after the task. Ss in Exp II received more intensive training in the learning task and completed 2 cued-recall tests in the same session and another cued-recall test 1 wk later. In both experiments, bizarre imagery did not improve memory more than plausible, interactive imagery. The degree of interaction in the image was a strong determinant of cued-recall performance at both retention intervals. Most Ss in Exp II believed that they had remembered more bizarre than plausible pairs, even though this was clearly not the case. Possible reasons for the acceptance of the notion that bizarre imagery improves memory are discussed. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Rater selective attention ability and appraisal effectiveness: The effect of a cognitive style on the accuracy of differentiation among ratees.

Examined the effect of the level of selective-attention ability of 359 undergraduate raters on the accuracy of ratings in 2 studies. A group-administered measure of field dependence–independence was used to divide Ss into high- or low-selectivity levels. In Study 1, 288 psychology undergraduates rated 4 vignettes of instructors by either direct inspection or from memory. In Study 2, 71 management undergraduates rated the vignettes. Results show that memory manipulation significantly influenced rating accuracy. In both studies, Ss high in selectivity provided significantly more accurate appraisals than did Ss low in selectivity. It is suggested that cognitive operations underly the effects found in these studies. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Hypnotically induced pseudomemories: Sampling their conditions among hypnotizable subjects.

Three studies investigated a range of parameters affecting individual differences in the incidence of hypnotically induced pseudomemory among hypnotizable Ss. Study 1 replicated Laurence and Perry's (1983) base rates for hypnotically induced pseudomemory response among hypnotizable subjects; in Study 2 the same response was analyzed under more strictly controlled stimulus conditions. Study 3 was an investigation of the impact of a broader range of stimulus events on response and a more sensitive test of the hypothesis that individual differences in pseudomemory effects are tied essentially to the social context of hypnosis. In all 3 studies, independent groups of Ss were tested who were highly responsive to hypnotic suggestion. Data indicated that the incidence of pseudomemory response was stable and consistent when stringent criteria of scoring were adopted. Also, for some Ss, real and suggested memories were maintained at one and the same time when hypnotically induced memory was examined in different test settings, suggesting that pseudomemories do not permanently overlay real experience. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Enhancing visual recognition memory in preterm infants.

Tested 6-mo-old full- and preterm infants on tasks of visual recognition memory. In Study 1, with 54 Ss, preterms failed to differentiate between novel and familiar test stimuli following brief amounts of familiarization, whereas full-terms showed significant novelty preferences on 2 of the 3 problems. Preterm Ss who had received extra sensory stimulation during the early week of life showed long-term benefits in that their performance was indistinguishable from that of the full-terms. In Study 2, 36 preterm Ss who had not received any intervention showed visual recognition memory if the familiarization time was lengthened. This success suggests that in general, prematures were able to store and retrieve the information and to make the visual discriminations involved; they did, however, show a pronounced deficit in the speed of information processing. It is suggested that visual recognition memory is negatively affected by prematurity and that performance can be improved by altering early environmental conditions. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Hypnotic amnesia and temporal organization: Effects of learning set, stimulus type, number of presentations, and hypnotic susceptibility.

Examined the effects of learning set, type of critical material, number of list presentations, and hypnotic susceptibility on the relationship between hypnotic amnesia and seriation in 3 experiments with 268 undergraduates. In Study 1, the critical stimuli were hypnotic test suggestions, and Ss were exposed to either an incidental or intentional learning set. Study 2 again manipulated learning set, but words served as the critical stimuli. Study 3 involved single vs multiple word list presentations prior to amnesia testing. No evidence for an amnesia-specific breakdown in seriation was obtained, and no consistent relationship between hypnotic susceptibility and changes in organization across recall trials emerged. Findings suggest that learning set, stimulus materials, and number of presentations could not account for the discrepant results obtained with the susceptibility scale and word list paradigms. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Monkeys with combined amygdalo-hippocampal lesions succeed in object discrimination learning despite 24-hour intertrial intervals.

14 rhesus monkeys, including 3 who had undergone amygdalo-hippocampal lesions before participating in a previous visual learning study, were trained on object-discrimination trials that were separated by 24 hrs to test the hypothesis that the 24-hr interval would prevent Ss with limbic lesions from learning. It is noted in previous research that monkeys with combined amygdalo-hippocampal removal show severe impairments on visual-memory tasks after delays of 1–2 min, yet they learn visual-discrimination habits nearly as quickly as normal monkeys with intertrial intervals of the same duration. Results of the present study indicate that, as long as the lesions did not encroach on the inferior temporal cortex, operated Ss could acquire concurrent sets of 20 object-discrimination habits at the same rate as unoperated Ss in an average of approximately 10 trials/set. Findings suggest that learning and retention processes are divisible into a mechanism for memory formation that is dependent on the limbic system and a mechanism for habit formation that is not. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)