A review on fuel economy test procedure for automobiles: Implementation possibilities in Malaysia and lessons for other countries

Automobiles are considered as the main energy consumer in the transportation sector. According to the National Energy Balance, its accounted for about 36% of the total energy consumption in Malaysia. In order to reduce energy consumption in this sector, this country must consider setting fuel economy standards for motor vehicles sometime in near future. The first step toward developing fuel economy standards is to create a precise test and rating procedure for the automobiles. The test procedure is the technical foundation for all related programs namely; fuel economy standards, fuel economy labels and incentive programs. The test conditions should represent the driving situations and environment of the country. This paper is attempts to present a critical review on fuel economy testing procedure around the world and to propose a process for selecting a fuel economy test procedure for automobiles based on the conditions and requirements of the country. The internationally recognize test procedure adopted by several countries is also presented in this paper. Even though the paper only discusses the test procedure for automobiles, the methods can be directly applied for other types of vehicles and in other countries without major modifications.     

Method for calculating annual energy efficiency improvement of TV sets

The popularization of 24 h pay-TV, interactive video games, web-TV, VCD and DVD are poised to have a large impact on overall TV electricity consumption in the Malaysia. Following this increased consumption, energy efficiency standard present a highly effective measure for decreasing electricity consumption in the residential sector. The main problem in setting energy efficiency standard is identifying annual efficiency improvement, due to the lack of time series statistical data available in developing countries. This study attempts to present a method of calculating annual energy efficiency improvement for TV set, which can be used for implementing energy efficiency standard for TV sets in Malaysia and other developing countries. Although the presented result is only an approximation, definitely it is one of the ways of accomplishing energy standard. Furthermore, the method can be used for other appliances without any major modification.     

A review on energy pattern and policy for transportation sector in Malaysia

Transportation has dominated global fuel consumption and greenhouse gas emissions have risen in an alarming rate. Gasoline and diesel consumption for road transport have a faster growing rate than other sector and the trend appeared to be rapidly moving upwards in the near future. This has caused much concern in many countries including Malaysia to improve the sustainable energy of this sector. The focus of this paper is to analyze the trends of energy pattern and emission of road transport in Malaysia. On top of that, the review of prospective policies such as fuel economy standards and fuel switching to natural gas as well as biodiesel are summarized in this study. The study found that there is an urgent need to adopt suitable energy policy to balance the energy demand and reduce emission in this sector. This study serves as a guideline for further investigation and research in order to implement and improve the transportation sector.     

A review on test procedure,energy efficiency standards and energy labels for room air conditioners and refrigerator–freezers

Air conditioners and refrigerator–freezers are major energy users in a household environment and hence efficiency improvement of these appliances can be considered as an important step to reduce their energy consumption along with environmental pollution prevention. Energy efficiency standards and labels are commonly used tools to reduce the energy uses for household appliances for many countries around the world. The first step towards adopting energy efficiency standards is to establish a test procedure for rating and testing of an appliance. It may be mentioned that an energy test procedure is the technical foundation for energy efficiency standards, energy labels, and other related programs. This paper reviews requirements and specifications of various international test standards for testing and rating of room air conditioners and refrigerators. A review on the development of the energy efficiency standards has been provided as well. Finally, energy labels that provide some useful information for identifying energy efficient products have been reviewed for these appliances. It may be stated that the review will be useful for the developing countries who wish to develop these energy savings strategies. It is also expected to be useful to revise the existing strategies for a few selected countries who already implemented these strategies earlier.     

Energy labeling for electric fans in Malaysia

To reduce energy consumption in the residential sector, Malaysia Energy Commission is considering implementing energy labels for household electrical appliances including electric fans in 2005. The purpose of the energy labels is to provide the consumers a guideline to compare the size, features, price and efficiency of the appliance. This paper discusses the energy label for electric fans in this country based on Malaysian Standards developed by a technical committee that reviewed the performance of household electrical appliances. This study includes methodology for the calculation of the energy efficiency star rating and projected energy usage, performance requirements, details of the energy label and the requirements for the valid application in Malaysia. The label also can be adopted for other household electrical appliances with only slight modifications.     

Electricity end-uses in the residential sector of Brazil

The residential energy consumption has been studied in many countries as it usually accounts for a large percentage of the total energy consumption. Energy end-uses have also been a matter of concern as they can assist energy system planning. The objective of this paper is to assess the actual scenario of electricity consumption and estimate electricity end-uses in the residential sector of Brazil for different bioclimatic zones. The analysis is based on a survey performed by 17 energy utilities enclosing a total of 17,643 houses or flats over 12 states in Brazil. The survey was performed to obtain electricity consumption data for all household appliances found in houses and flats. The electricity end-uses were estimated by performing weighted averages according to the location of the dwellings in each bioclimatic zone. Results indicate that the largest end-uses are for refrigerator and freezer together, which account for about 38–49% of the electricity consumption in dwellings in Brazil. Air-conditioning and electric shower are the end-uses that are more dependent on the climatic conditions. The main conclusion that can be made from the analysis is that air-conditioning should be a major concern in the residential sector of Brazil in the near future as its ownership is still low, but its electricity consumption is already significant mainly over summer.     

Climate-related electricity demand-side management in oil-exporting countries—the case of the United Arab Emirates

The oil crisis of the 1970s has increased the concern about the continuity of oil imports flow to major oil-importing developed countries. Numerous policy measures including electricity demand-side management (DSM) programs have been adopted in such countries. These measures aim at reducing the growing need for electricity power that increases the dependency on imported foreign oil and damages the environment. On the other hand, the perception that energy can be obtained at very low cost in oil-rich countries led to less attention being paid to the potential of DSM policies in these countries. This paper discusses such potential using the case of the United Arab Emirates (UAE). Since air conditioning is a major source of electric energy consumption, the relationship between climate conditions and electric energy consumption is considered. An electricity demand model is constructed using time series techniques. The fitted model seems to represent these relationships rather well. Forecasts for electricity consumption using the estimated model indicate that a small reduction in cooling degrees requirement might induce a significant reduction in electric energy demand. Hence, a DSM program is proposed with policy actions to include, among others, measures to reduce cooling degrees requirement.     

Energy,economic and environmental benefits of using high-efficiency motors to replace standard motors for the Malaysian industries

Electric motors use major share (i.e. about 30–80% of total industrial energy consumption) of total industrial energy use around the world. Experiences from other countries show that government intervention in the form of regulations such as mandatory and voluntary approaches can save sizeable amount of energy along with the reduction in emissions associated with energy savings. This paper presents potential energy savings by introducing high-efficiency motors as a case study in Malaysian industrial sector. Emission reductions associated with the energy savings has been estimated and presented as well. It was also estimated that a cumulative amount of 1940 and 892 GWh of energy can be saved for 20 and 120 kW motors, respectively, in Malaysia relative to BAU over the next 10 years. Similarly, a cumulative amount of USD 100 million and USD 60 million can be saved as utility bills for the same motor categories. It has been found that the payback period of different capacities of motors are less than a year. Based on results, it was found that 1789 million kg of CO₂ emission can be avoided by replacing standard motors with high-efficiency motors.     

Electricity consumption and associated GHG emissions of the Jordanian industrial sector: Empirical analysis and future projection

In this paper, an empirical model is developed for electricity consumption of the Jordanian industrial sector based on multivariate linear regression to identify the main drivers behind electricity consumption. In addition, projection of electricity consumption for the industrial sector based on time series forecasting is presented. It was found that industrial production outputs and capacity utilization are the two most important variables that affect demand on electrical power and the multivariate linear regression model can be used adequately to simulate industrial electricity consumption with very high coefficient of determination. To illustrate the importance of integrating energy efficiency within national energy plans, the impact of implementing high-efficiency motors was investigated and found to be significant. Without such basic energy conservation and management programs, electricity consumption and associated GHG emissions for the industrial sector are predicted to rise by 63% in the year 2019. However, if these measures are implemented on a gradual basis, over the same period, electricity consumption and GHG emissions are forecasted to ascend at a lower rate with low/no cost actions.     

Forecasting the electricity consumption of the Mexican border states maquiladoras

The consumption of electricity by maquiladora industries in the Mexican border states is an important driver for determining future powerplant needs in that area. An industrial electricity forecasting model is developed for the border states' maquiladoras, and the outputs are compared with a reference forecasting model developed for the US industrial sector, for which considerably more data are available. This model enables the prediction of the effect of implementing various energy efficiency measures in the industrial sector. As an illustration, here the impact of implementing energy‐efficient lighting and motors in the Mexican border states' maquiladoras was determined to be substantial. Without such energy efficiency measures, electricity consumption for these industries is predicted to rise by 64% from 2001 to 2010, but if these measures are implemented on a gradual basis over the same time period, electricity consumption is forecast to rise by only 36%. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Energy demand convergence in APEC: An empirical analysis

This paper empirically examines the cross-country convergence of per-capita energy and electricity usage in APEC, a significant economic bloc. To this end, the study applies conventional panel unit root tests and Sequential Panel Selection Model (SPSM) procedure based on the Panel KSS unit root with a Fourier function for robustness analysis. The results from conventional unit root test results indicate that per capita energy usage and electricity consumption are converging for all APEC countries, in line with improving living standards in APEC. The findings also provide some support for policies to promote energy integration among APEC countries. According to SPSM analysis, evidence of energy convergence is found for 15 out of 19 APEC countries and evidence of electricity convergence is found for 17 out of 19 APEC countries. Pursuit of policies to achieve energy supply stability can move divergent countries toward convergence.     

Ethanol–electric propulsion as a sustainable technological alternative for urban buses in Brazil

The option of fitting electric motors to vehicles that are more efficient and quieter than internal combustion engines has been hampered considerably, looking only at the use of conventional batteries supplying electricity. This is basically due to low gravimetric and volumetric energy densities of these devices that result in shorter autonomy, in addition to more weight and less usable space in the vehicle. An alternative that could make electric motors more attractive for vehicular applications by replacing batteries as the main electricity source is the fuel cell. Hydrogen is the main fuel used in these cells, but the hydrogen storage systems developed so far are heavier and bulkier than their equivalent for conventional liquid fuels such as diesel, gasoline and alcohol, despite heavier energy densities compared to batteries.This paper reviews technological aspects of fuel cells, the main storage systems for hydrogen and other energy sources, data on fuel use and the types of vehicles most commonly used in the Brazilian road transportation sector, followed by an overview of the insertion of hybrid ethanol–electric buses in Brazil.     

交通运输业能耗现状及未来走势分析

低碳经济要求交通运输有效、合理地使用能源,优化配置各种交通工具,降低能耗。近年来,我国交通运输业能耗增长率总体上高于全社会能耗增长率,占全社会能耗比重基本维持在7.5%左右。各种运输方式的能耗主要集中在油耗上,2007年交通运输业汽煤柴3种油耗叠加在一起,占全社会油耗比重近70%。交通运输中电能利用效率较高,节电效果好于全社会,电耗占全社会电耗比重从2002年的2.07%降至2007年的1.63%,但占全国交通运输能耗比重仅10%左右,能耗结构不合理现象并未得到改善。2008年国家铁路单位运输工作量综合能耗比上年降低3.1%,2009年我国铁路电气化率达到41.9%,铁路能耗结构出现根本性改善和优化,开始转变为以电耗为主。公路运输油耗总量呈快速增长趋势,百吨公里油耗指标呈稳中略升态势,节能空间和潜能较大。水运(含港口)能耗2004年之前呈上升趋势,之后下降趋势明显,约占交通运输业总能耗的15%。民航每吨公里油耗从2002年的0.364kg降至2007年的0.309kg,航油消耗增长率基本维持在12%上下,有较为明显的减弱趋势。未来10年,我国交通运输能源消耗总量将进一步攀升,虽然能耗结构将得到一定程度优化,电耗比重会迅速增长,但由于公路能耗在交通运输能耗中占有绝对比重,故难以从根本上改善交通运输以油耗为主的结构特点。我国交通运输业应逐步调整到以铁路为主导的各种交通方式协调发展的模式上来,最大限度地降低运输业油耗在整个交通运输行业中的比重,"以电代油"。     

Review on fuel economy standard and label for vehicle in selected ASEAN countries

Sustainable supply of energy at affordable prices is vital to ensure the human development. ASEAN is committed pursuing for a clean and green region with fully established mechanisms for sustainable development to ensure the protection of regional environment, resources and the high quality of people's life. Nowadays, energy use in the transportation sector represents an important issue in ASEAN countries. Therefore, it is believed that the introduction of fuel economy standards and labels is the key to save energy in this sector. Fuel economy standards and labels are relatively cheap measure to influence consumer behaviour and to induce car manufacturers to produce more efficient vehicles. Fuel economy standards and labels for vehicle are being implemented in many countries around the world to save fuel consumption and mitigate CO₂ emission. This paper is a review on fuel economy standard and labels for vehicle in some selected ASEAN countries such as Singapore, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand and Vietnam. It has been found that Singapore is the leading country in ASEAN that has implemented fuel economy standards and labels. Moreover, it has been found that the implementation of cleaner fuels standard play a crucial role in protecting public health and the environment from transportation sector emissions. The most common alternative fuels used in ASEAN are biodiesel, ethanol, methanol, propane, hydrogen and natural gas.     

Estimating the potential for electricity savings in households

Improving efficiency in the use of energy is an important goal for many nations since end-use energy efficiency can help to reduce CO₂ emissions. Furthermore, since the residential sector in industrialised countries requires around one third of the end-use electricity, it is important for policy makers to estimate the scope for electricity saving in households to reduce electricity consumption by using appropriate steering mechanisms. We estimate the level of technical efficiency in the use of electricity using data from a Swiss household survey. We find an average inefficiency in electricity use by Swiss households of around 20 to 25%. Bottom-up economic-engineering models estimate the potential in Switzerland to be around 15%. In this paper we use a sub-vector input distance frontier function based on economic foundations. Our estimates lie at the upper end of the electricity saving potential estimated by the afore-mentioned economic-engineering approach.     

Electricity demand for South Korean residential sector

This study estimates the electricity demand function for the residential sector of South Korea with the aim of examining the effects of improved energy efficiency, structural factors and household lifestyles on electricity consumption. In the study, time series data for the period from 1973 to 2007 is used in a structural time series model to estimate the long-term price and income elasticities and annual growth of underlying energy demand trend (UEDT) at the end of the estimation period. The result shows a long-term income elasticity of 1.33 and a long-term price elasticity of −0.27% with −0.93% as the percentage growth of UEDT at the end of the estimation period. This result suggests that, in order to encourage energy efficiency in the residential sector, the government should complement the market based pricing policies with non-market policies such as minimum energy efficiency standards and public enlightenment.     

Technical-economic aspects of the utilization of geothermal waters

This paper reports on the world energy consumption between 1960 and 1984 from primary energy sources (coal, natural gas, oil, hydropower, nuclear energy) and the same in percentages from 1925. This highlights the diminishing role of coal and the increased consumption of gas and oil. The latter has stabilized around 42% of the total after the drop in demand resulting from the oil crisis of 1973.The world energy consumption has then been divided into industrialized and developing countries. It appears that the latter, with a population equal to 68% of the total world population, consumed 23% of the world energy in 1982. Furthermore, the consumption figures show that the demand for domestic energy is much smaller in developing countries, and it is well-known that domestic energy consumed is one of the parameters used to assess standard of living.The total installed electric capacity throughout the world is then reported, divided between developed and developing countries, showing that the latter consumed 11% of all the electricity generated in the world in 1981. The world installed electric power of geothermal origin at the end of 1985 is shown, along with estimates for 1990. Geothermal energy represents 0.2% of the world electric power. This is obviously a small figure and indicates that geothermal energy plays a minor role on the world energy scene. However, if we distinguish between industrialized and developing countries, we can observe that, with their currently limited electrical consumption but good geothermal prospects, the developing countries could achieve quite a significant contribution to their total electric energy from that of geothermal origin, increasing at the moment from 3 to 19%.Finally, a comparison is made between electricity generating costs of different sources, showing that geothermal energy is competitive. A table illustrates the world evolution in installed geothermal capacity from 1950 to 1985.The non-electric uses of geothermal energy, on the other hand, have a rather insignificant role in both the developing and industrialized countries. It is unlikely that geothermal energy will ever achieve a greater significance in this sector, with a few rare exceptions.     

Energy analysis and exergy utilization in the transportation sector of Jordan

The transport sector is responsible for about 37% of total final energy demand in Jordan, and thus it is considered an important driver for determining future national energy needs. This paper presents energy analysis and exergy utilization in the transportation sector of Jordan by considering the sectoral energy and exergy flows for the last two decades. The transportation sector, in Jordan, is a two-mode system, namely, road, which covers almost all domestic passenger and freight transport and airways. The latter is mainly used for international flights. The average estimated overall energy and exergy efficiencies were found as 23.2% and 22.8%, respectively. This simply indicates that there is large potential for improvement and efficiency enhancement. It is believed that the present technique is practical and useful for analyzing sectoral energy and exergy utilization to determine how efficiently energy and exergy are used in the transportation sector. It is also helpful to establish standards, based on exergy, to facilitate applications in different planning processes such as energy planning. A comparison with other countries showed that energy and exergy efficiencies of the Jordanian transport sector are slightly lower than that of Turkey, and higher than those incurred in Malaysia, Saudi Arabia and Norway. Such difference is inevitable due to dissimilar structure of the transport sector in these countries.     

Energy and emission analysis for industrial motors in Malaysia

The industrial sector is the largest user of energy in Malaysia. Industrial motors account for a major segment of total industrial energy use. Since motors are the principle energy users, different energy savings strategies have been applied to reduce their energy consumption and associated emissions released into the atmosphere. These strategies include using highly efficient motors, variable speed drive (VSD), and capacitor banks to improve the power factor. It has been estimated that there can be a total energy savings of 1765, 2703 and 3605 MWh by utilizing energy-efficient motors for 50%, 75% and 100% loads, respectively. It was also found that for different motor loads, an estimated US$115,936 US$173,019 and US$230,693 can be saved in anticipated energy costs. Similarly, it is hypothesized that a significant amount of energy can be saved using VSD and capacitor banks to reduce speed and improve the power factor, thus cutting energy costs. Moreover, a substantial reduction in the amount of emissions can be effected together with the associated energy savings for different energy savings strategies. In addition, the payback period for different energy savings strategies has been found to be reasonable in some cases.     

Assessing the sustainability challenges for electricity industries in ASEAN newly industrialising countries

Rapid social and economic progress in fast developing countries such that among the countries in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) have driven substantial growth in electricity consumption in this region. Whilst this represents significant societal and economic development, it has potentially growing adverse environmental impacts. This raises a concern on sustainable development in the electricity sector in this region. This study evaluates key sustainability challenges in the electricity industries in the five largest energy consumers in ASEAN: Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia, the Philippines and Vietnam. The 3A's energy sustainability objectives: Accessibility, Availability and Acceptability are used as the sustainability analytical framework. This study also draws together a set of associated indicators and criteria within the analytical framework to analyse the status of the electricity industries in these countries. The analysis shows that key sustainability challenges in the ASEAN-5 are attributable to satisfying rapid demand growth; enhancing security of electricity supply; and mitigating the increase in CO₂ emissions from electricity generation. Given the promising resource and technical potential in this region, renewable energy emerges as a favourable option to address these challenges; however, increasing the share of renewable energy in electricity generation requires considerable policy support. This study suggests that there is an opportunity for the ASEAN countries to strengthen regional collaborations through experience and resource sharing to enhance sustainability in the electricity industries. This study also highlights some of the key issues facing the electricity industry, and the need for new generation investment decision support tools which can address these issues.