Effects of cathode flow fields on direct methanol fuel cell-simulation study

Flow-field design of direct methanol fuel cell (DMFCs) plays an important role affecting the cell performance. Previous studies suggest that the combination of anode parallel flow field and cathode serpentine flow-field present the best and stable performance. Among these, cathode flow-field holds higher influence than that of anode. However, more detailed experiments needed to be done to find out the reasons. In this study, CFDRC half-cell models are adopted to simulate the flow phenomena within serpentine, parallel and grid flow field. We find that gas is well distributed within serpentine flow field while barren region are observed within parallel flow field. These factors contribute to the cell performance greatly. In addition, the durability test of DMFCs using parallel flow field is improved when the flow rate is increased or the current is uphold at inferior, so the barren region maintained at an acceptable level.     

Effect of flow-field pattern and flow configuration on the performance of a polymer-electrolyte-membrane water electrolyzer at high temperature

This study aimed to optimize the flow-field pattern and flow configuration of a polymer-electrolyte-membrane water electrolyzer, with a particular focus on high-temperature operation up to 120 °C. Three types of flow-field pattern (serpentine, parallel, and cascade) were tested in both the anode and cathode sides of a water electrolyzer cell, and the current-voltage characteristics and high-frequency resistance were measured to examine which overpotential components are impacted by the flow-field pattern. The experimental results revealed that the cathode flow-field pattern only affects the ohmic overpotential, while the anode flow-field pattern significantly affects the overpotential related to liquid water shortage at catalyst layer, and the flow configuration (counter- and co-flow) does not affect the electrolysis performance. Finally, under operating conditions of 120 °C and 0.3 MPa, we found that the optimized cell configuration consisted of cascade and serpentine flow-field patterns in the anode and cathode, respectively; this configuration produced the minimum electrolysis voltage of 1.69 V at 2 A/cm².     

Different flow fields,operation modes and designs for proton exchange membrane fuel cells with dead-ended anode

Water and nitrogen can accumulate in the anode channel in proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) with dead-ended anode (DEA) and can affect cell performance significantly. In this paper, the cell performance characteristics in DEA PEMFCs with three different anode flow fields under two operating modes are studied through measuring the cell voltages and local current densities. The effect of the anode exit reservoir is also studied for the three different anode flow fields. The experimental results show that the interdigitated flow field has the most stable cell performance under both constant pressure and pressure swing supply modes. Parallel and serpentine flow fields lead to very non-uniform local current distributions under constant pressure supply mode and experience severe fluctuations and spikes in local current densities under pressure swing supply mode. The results also show that anode pressure swing supply mode can achieve more stable cell performance than anode constant pressure supply mode for parallel and serpentine anode flow fields. The anode exit reservoir can significantly improve cell performance stability for parallel and serpentine flow fields, but has no significant effect on interdigitated flow fields. Besides, the results further show that PEMFCs with DEA can maintain very stable operation with anode serpentine flow field and an anode exit reservoir under pressure swing operation.     

Detailed analysis of polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell with enhanced cross‐flow split serpentine flow field design

Most generally used flow channel designs in polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) are serpentine flow designs as single channels or as multiple channels due to their advantages over parallel flow field designs. But these flow fields have inherent problems of high pressure drop, improper reactant distribution, and poor water management, especially near the U‐bends. The problem of inadequate water evacuation and improper reactant distribution become more severe and these designs become worse at higher current loads (low voltages). In the current work, a detailed performance study of enhanced cross‐flow split serpentine flow field (ECSSFF) design for PEMFC has been conducted using a three‐dimensional (3‐D) multiphase computational fluid dynamic (CFD) model. ECSSFF design is used for cathode part of the cell and parallel flow field on anode part of the cell. The performance of PEMFC with ECSSFF has been compared with the performance of triple serpentine flow design on cathode side by keeping all other parameters and anode side flow field design similar. The performance is evaluated in terms of their polarization curves. A parametric study is carried out by varying operating conditions, viz, cell temperature and inlet humidity on air and fuel side. The ECSSFF has shown superior performance over the triple serpentine design under all these conditions.     

Study of novel flow channels influence on the performance of direct methanol fuel cell

The existing flow channels like parallel and gird channels have been modified for better fuel distribution in order to boost the performance of direct methanol fuel cell. The main objective of the work is to achieve minimized pressure drop in the flow channel, uniform distribution of methanol, reduced water accumulation, and better oxygen supply. A 3D mathematical model with serpentine channel is simulated for the cell temperature of 80 °C, 0.5 M methanol concentration. The study resulted in 40 mW/cm² of power density and 190 mA/cm² of current density at the operating voltage of 0.25 V. Further, the numerical study is carried out for modified flow channels to discuss their merits and demerits on anode and cathode side. The anode serpentine channel is unmatched by the modified zigzag and pin channels by ensuring the better methanol distribution under the ribs and increased the fuel consumption. But the cathode serpentine channel is lacking in water management. The modified channels at anode offered reduced pressure drop, still uniform reactant distribution is found impossible. The modified channels at cathode outperform the serpentine channel by reducing the effect of water accumulation, and uniform oxygen supply. So the serpentine channel is retained for methanol supply, and modified channel is chosen for cathode reactant supply. In comparison to cell with only serpentine channel, the serpentine anode channel combined with cathode zigzag and pin channel enhanced power density by 17.8% and 10.2% respectively. The results revealed that the zigzag and pin channel are very effective in mitigating water accumulation and ensuring better oxygen supply at the cathode.     

Numerical studies on the geometrical characterization of serpentine flow-field for efficient PEMFC

Geometrical characterization of the serpentine flow-field is one of the key issues to be solved to enhance the performance of PEMFC in relation to pressure drop, discharge of condensed water, maximization of cell voltage, and uniformity of current density over the entire surface area. Three different channel heights and widths were compared with the base flow-field design of the serpentine channel whose width is 1 mm and 0.34 mm in height, each through a detailed numerical study of the distribution of temperature, pressure, water content, and local current density. As the channel height increases higher than the base design, the total pressure drop decreases and results in reduced load of BOP and accumulation of liquid water at the outlet of both anode and cathode. The accumulation of anode liquid water at the outlet caused by back diffusion is accelerated as the channel height increases. As the channel width expands wider than the base design, the pressure drop is lowered and the removal rate of liquid water becomes faster. The effect of the channel width increase on the water removal is greater than that of the channel height increase. Which can influence the dehydration and temperature of the MEA and thus cell performance and lifetime of PEMFC. The results obtained in this work are expected to be applied in developing an efficient serpentine flow-field channel with sub-channels and by-passes.     

In situ comparison of water content and dynamics in parallel, single-serpentine, and interdigitated flow fields of polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells

Water content and dynamics were characterized and compared in situ by simultaneous neutron and optical imaging for three PEM fuel cell flow fields: parallel, serpentine, and interdigitated. Two independent sets of images were obtained simultaneously: liquid water dynamics in the flow field (channels and manifolds) were recorded by a digital camera through an optical window, while the through-thickness integrated water content was measured across the cell area by neutron imaging. Complementary data from the concurrent images allowed distinguishing between the water dynamics on the cathode and the anode side. The transient water content within the cell measured using neutron imaging is correlated with optical data as well as with temporal variations in the cell output and pressure differentials across the flow fields. Water dynamics on both the cathode and anode side were visualized and discussed.The serpentine cell showed stable output across the current range and the highest limiting current. Parallel and interdigitated cells exhibited substantially higher water contents and lower pressure differentials than the serpentine. Anode flooding significantly impeded their performance at high current. At moderate current, cell output correlated with the changes in water distribution in the cathode flow field rather than with the variations in the overall water content. Performance of the interdigitated cell was similar to the serpentine one in spite of the vastly different water contents.The cell's water-content response to a step-change in current revealed three distinct stages of water accumulation. Flow field configuration greatly affected both the amount of water accumulated in the cell and the duration of each stage.     

Two-phase flow behaviour and performance of polymer electrolyte membrane electrolysers: Electrochemical and optical characterisation

Understanding gas evolution and two-phase flow behaviour are critical for performance optimization of polymer electrolyte membrane water electrolysers (PEMWEs), particularly at high current densities. This study investigates the gas-bubble dynamics and two-phase flow behaviour in the anode flow-field of a PEMWE under different operating conditions using high-speed optical imaging and relates the results to the electrochemical performance. Two types of anode flow-field designs were investigated, the single serpentine flow-field (SSFF) and parallel flow-field (PFF). The results show that the PFF design yielded a higher cell performance than the SSFF design at identical operating conditions. Optical visualization shows a strong relationship between the flow path length and the length of gas slugs produced, which in turn influences the flow regime of operation. Longer flow path length in the SSFF results in annular flow regime at a high current density which degrades cell performance. The annular flow regime was absent in the PFF design. It was found the effect of flow rate on performance depends strongly on operating temperature in both flow patterns. Results of this study indicate that long channel length promotes gas accumulation and channel-blocking which degrades performance in PEMWEs.     

Assessment of different bio-inspired flow fields for direct methanol fuel cells through 3D modeling and experimental studies

The performance impact of using bio-inspired interdigitated and non-interdigitated flow fields (I-FF and NI-FF, respectively) within a DMFC is investigated. These two flow fields, as well as a conventional serpentine flow field (S-FF, used as a reference), were examined as possible anode and cathode flow field candidates. To examine the performance of each of these candidates, each flow field was manufactured and experimentally tested under different anode and cathode flow rate combinations (1.3 mL/min [methanol] and 400 mL/min [oxygen], as well as 2 and 3 times these flow rates), and different methanol concentrations (0.50 M, 0.75 M, and 1.00 M). To help understand the experimental results and the underlying physics, a three dimensional numerical model was developed. Of the examined flow fields, the S-FF and the I-FF yielded the best performance on the anode and cathode, respectively. This finding was mainly due to the enhanced under-rib convection of both of these flow fields. Although the I-FF provided a higher mean methanol concentration on the anode catalyst layer surface, its distribution was less uniform than that of the S-FF. This caused the rate of methanol permeation to the cathode to increase (for the anode I-FF configuration), along with the anode and cathode activation polarizations, deteriorating the fuel cell performance. The NI-FF provided the lowest pressure drops of the examined configurations. However, the hydrodynamics within the flow field made the reactants susceptible to traveling directly from inlet to outlet, leading to several low concentration pockets. This significantly decreased the reactant uniformity across its respective catalyst layer, and caused this FFs performance to be the lowest of the examined configurations.     

A flow field enabling operating direct methanol fuel cells with highly concentrated methanol

In this work, an anode flow field that allows a direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC) to operate with highly concentrated methanol is developed and tested. The basic idea of this flow field design is to vaporize methanol solution in the flow field by utilizing the heat generated from the fuel cell so that the methanol concentration in the anode catalyst layer can be controlled to an appropriate level. The flow field is composed of two parallel flow channel plates, separated with a gap. The upper plate with a grooved serpentine flow channel is to vaporize a highly concentrated methanol solution to ensure the fuel to be completely vaporized before it enters the gap, while the lower plate, perforated to form a serpentine flow channel and located between the gap and the membrane electrode assembly (MEA), is to uniformly distribute the fuel onto the anode surface of the MEA. The test results show that this unique flow field design enables the DMFC operating with 16.0-M methanol to yield a power output similar to that with the conventional flow field design with 2.0-M methanol, significantly increasing the specific energy of the DMFC system. Finally, the effects of methanol solution flow rates and operating temperature on cell performance are investigated.     

Effect of GDL compression on pressure drop and pressure distribution in PEMFC flow field

Improving reactant distribution is an important technological challenge in the design of a PEMFC. Flow field and the Gas Diffusion Layer (GDL) distribute the reactant over the catalyst area in a cell. Hence it is necessary to consider flow field and GDL together to improve their combined effectiveness. This paper describes a simple and unique off-cell experimental setup developed to determine pressure as a function of position in the active area, due to reactant flow in a fuel cell flow field. By virtue of the experimental setup being off-cell, reactant consumption, heat production, and water generation, are not accounted as experienced in a real fuel cell. A parallel channel flow field and a single serpentine flow field have been tested as flow distributors in the experimental setup developed. In addition, the interaction of gas diffusion layer with the flow distributor has also been studied. The gas diffusion layer was compressed to two different thicknesses and the impact of GDL compression on overall pressure drop and pressure distribution over the active area was obtained using the developed experimental setup. The results indicate that interaction of GDL with the flow field and the effect of GDL compression on overall pressure drop and pressure distribution is more significant for a serpentine flow field relative to a parallel channel flow field.     

Numerical modeling of anode-bleeding PEM fuel cells: Effects of operating conditions and flow field design

Operating the PEM fuel cell in the dead-ended anode mode reduces the overall cost and complexity of the system but causes a voltage loss and carbon corrosion in the cathode catalyst layer due to hydrogen starvation in the anode. Whereas allowing an ultra-low flowrate at the anode outlet offers a very high utilization of hydrogen and achieves a stable voltage transient. Here, a time-dependent pseudo-three-dimensional, two-phase, and non-isothermal model is developed to study the optimum bleeding rate, which maximizes the hydrogen utilization, achieves a stable cell voltage and avoids carbon corrosion, which is commonly observed when the bleed rate is set to zero, i.e. the dead-ended mode. The model is validated against the experimental data by comparing the polarization curves and cell voltage transients during the dead-ended anode operation of small experimental cells with serpentine and straight anode flow channels. Moreover, the effects of operating conditions on cell performance during the anode bleeding operation mode are investigated. Results demonstrate that the hydrogen utilization exceeds 99% in the anode-bleeding mode without hydrogen starvation, and the cell performance improves significantly for higher anode pressure, lower cell temperature, and lower relative humidity at the cathode inlet. Lastly, it is found that serpentine channels in the anode improve the uniformity of the distribution of hydrogen compared to straight and interdigitated channels in the anode-bleeding mode while the cathode flow field consists of serpentine channels.     

Electrolyte flow optimization and performance metrics analysis of vanadium redox flow battery for large-scale stationary energy storage

Vanadium redox flow battery (VRFB) is the best choice for large-scale stationary energy storage, but its low energy density affects its overall performance and restricts its development. In order to improve the performance of VRFB, a new type of spiral flow field is proposed, and a multi-physics coupling model and performance metrics evaluation system are established to explore the electrolyte distribution characteristics. The results show that the new spiral flow field can effectively improve the uniformity of electrolyte flow and alleviate the phenomenon of local concentration polarization as compared with the traditional serpentine flow field and parallel flow field. Due to the long flow channel and large pressure drop, the system efficiency is low. However, coulombic efficiency, voltage efficiency and energy efficiency are significantly better than the traditional flow fields. Therefore, the novel flow field has obvious advantages in the application of small stacks.     

Experimental investigations of the anode flow field of a micro direct methanol fuel cell

The effect of the anode flow field design on the performance of an in-house fabricated micro direct methanol fuel cell (μDMFC) with an active area 1.0 cm × 1.0 cm was investigated experimentally. Single serpentine and parallel flow fields consisting of micro channels were tested. The experimental results indicated that the serpentine flow field exhibited significantly higher cell voltages than did the parallel flow field, particularly at high current densities. The study of the effect of channel depth of the serpentine flow field suggested that there exists an optimal channel depth for the same channel width and the same open ratio when the same methanol flow rate is supplied; either shallower or deeper channels will lead to a reduction in the cell performance. Finally, it was demonstrated that performance of the μDMFC with the reactants fed by an active means was insensitive to the cell orientations, which is different from conventional DMFCs with larger flow channels reported in the literature.     

Development of a novel radial cathode flow field for PEMFC

This paper presents an innovative radial flow field design for PEMFC cathode flow plates. This new design, which is in the form of a radial flow field, replaces the standard rectangular flow channels in exchange for a set of flow control rings. The control rings allow for better flow distribution and use of the active area. The radial field constructed of aluminum and plated with gold for superior surface and conductive properties. This material was selected based on the results obtained from the performance of the standard flow channels of serpentine and parallel designs constructed of hydrophilic gold and typical hydrophobic graphite materials. It is shown that the new flow field design performs significantly better compared to the current standard parallel channels in a dry-air-flow environment. The polarization curves for a dry flow, however, show excessive membrane drying with the radial design. Humidifying the air flow improves the membrane hydration, and in the meantime, the fuel cell with the innovative radial flow field produces higher current compared to other channel designs, even the serpentine flow field. The water removal and mass transport capacity of the radial flow field was proven to be better than parallel and serpentine designs. This performance increase was achieved while maintaining the pressure drop nearly half of the pressure drop measured in the serpentine flow field.     

Cross-leakage flow between adjacent flow channels in PEM fuel cells

In polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cells, serpentine flow channels are used conventionally for effective water removal. The reactant flows along the flow channel with pressure decrease due to the frictional and minor losses as well as the reactant depletion because of electrochemical reactions in the cells. Because of the short distance between the adjacent flow channels, often in the order of 1 mm or smaller, the pressure gradient between the adjacent flow channels is very large, driving part of reactant to flow through the porous electrode backing layer (or the so-called gas diffusion layer)—this cross-leakage flow between adjacent flow channels in PEM fuel cells has been largely ignored in previous studies. In this study, the effect of cross-flow in an electrode backing layer has been investigated numerically by considering bipolar plates with single-channel serpentine flow field for both the anode and cathode side. It is found that a significant amount of reactant gas flows through the porous electrode structure, due to the pressure difference, and enters the next flow channel, in addition to a portion entering the catalyst layer for reaction. Therefore, mixing occurs between the relatively high concentration reactant stream following the flow channel and the relatively low reactant concentration stream going through the electrode. It is observed that the cross-leakage flow influences the reactant concentration at the interface between the electrode and the catalyst layer, hence the distribution of reaction rate or current density generated. In practice, this cross-leakage flow in the cathode helps drive the liquid water out of the electrode structure for effective water management, partially responsible for the good PEM fuel cell performance using the serpentine flow channels.     

A tapered serpentine flow field for the anode of micro direct methanol fuel cells

We develop a self-breathing micro direct methanol fuel cell (μDMFC) characterized by a new anode structure with tapered single serpentine flow fields to improve cell performance. Compared with the conventional single serpentine flow field, this new design enhances the methanol mass transport efficiency and the exhaust resultant (CO₂) rate due to the increasing pressure difference between adjacent flow channels. The μDMFCs with two single serpentine flow fields are fabricated using silicon-based micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) technologies and are tested at room temperature. The experimental results reveal that the new tapered single serpentine flow field exhibits a significantly higher peak power density than that of the conventional flow field, demonstrating a substantial increase of 17.9% in mass transport coefficients.     

Effect of channel-to-channel cross-flow on local flooding in serpentine flow-fields

Serpentine flow-fields have long been used in polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cells for effective transportation of reactants from the flow-field to the reaction sites. It has been observed in the literature that localized flooding near the U-bend region of serpentine flow-fields occurs at high current densities. This has been attributed to the boundary layer separation and recirculation of flow in the U-bend. In the present study, it is established, using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations, that this is due to lower channel-to-channel cross-flow in the electrodes between consecutive serpentine channels rather than to the flow-field in the gas distribution channels.     

Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy analysis of a thin polymer film-based micro-direct methanol fuel cell

A single cell micro-direct methanol fuel cell (micro-DMFC) was investigated using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. The electrodes consisted of thin, flexible polymer (SU8) film microchannel structures fabricated in-house using microfabrication techniques. AC impedance spectroscopy was used to separate contributions to the overall cell polarization from the anode, cathode and membrane. A clear distinction between the different electrochemical phenomena occurring in the micro-DMFC, especially the distinction between double layer charging and Faradaic reactions was shown. The effect of fuel flow rate, temperature, and anode flow channel structure on the impedance of the electrode reactions and membrane/electrode double layer charging were investigated. Analysis of impedance data revealed that the performance of the test cell was largely limited by the presence of intermediate carbon monoxide in the anode reaction. Higher temperatures increase cell performance by enabling intermediate CO to be oxidized at much higher rates. The results also revealed that serpentine anode flow microchannels show a lower tendency to intermediate CO coverage and a more stable cell behavior than parallel microchannels.