Subject, experimenter, and situational variables in research on anxiety.

3 organismic variables, test anxiety of Ss and of Es, and sex of S were manipulated in a verbal-learning situation. 2 siuational variables, preliminary differential-motivating instructions, and success-failure reports were also studied. High test anxious Ss performed at lower level than did low test anxious Ss, and females were superior to males. Female Ss performed best when run by low test anxious Es. Many significant interactions involving both organismic and situational variables were obtained. The results strongly indicate the need for investigations which simultaneously manipulate these variables in psychological experiments. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Changes in self-reported anxiety during a small group experience.

To examine changes in self-reported anxiety during the course of a small group, the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) was administered at several times to 126 undergraduate participants in brief, leaderless sensitivity training groups. Groups differed in terms of members' interpersonal skills and instructions given prior to the group meeting. Trait anxiety remained stable over time while state anxiety decreased significantly. No effects were related to type of instruction but there was a significant Level of Interpersonal Skills * Anxiety interaction. The usefulness of the trait-state distinction and the interaction of individual differences and situational determinants of anxiety states are discussed. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationships among locus of control, anxiety, and valued-goal expectations.

55 male and 86 female undergraduates completed Rotter's Internal-External Control Scale, the Institute for Personality and Ability Testing Anxiety Scale, and a valued-goal questionnaire. Results support earlier research in showing that the relationship between anxiety and locus of control held for males and females in a noninteractive manner and that lower goal expectation was related to higher anxiety and externality. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender differences in anxiety disorders and anxiety symptoms in adolescents.

Gender differences in anxiety were examined in a large sample of adolescents that included 1,079 who had never met criteria for any disorder, 95 who had recovered from an anxiety disorder, and 47 who had a current anxiety disorder. Participants were examined on a wide array of psychosocial measures. There was a preponderance of females among current and recovered anxiety disorder cases, but not among those who had never experienced an anxiety disorder. The female preponderance emerges early in life, and retrospective data indicate that at age 6, females are already twice as likely to have experienced an anxiety disorder than are males. Psychosocial variables that were correlated with both anxiety and gender were identified. Statistically controlling for these variables did not eliminate the gender differences in prevalence or anxiety symptom means. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of three conditions of administration on "trait" and "state" measures of anxiety.

Administered a battery of test anxiety scales and 2 physiological measures to 25 undergraduates under 3 differing sets of demand characteristics in order to determine the effect of situational aspects on anxiety scale scores. Measures of academic performances were also obtained. The hypothesis that specific demand characteristics would differentially influence Ss' scoring on "trait" and "state" anxiety scales was supported, but no support for a hypothesized relationship between the operation of demand characteristics and systematic changes in the correlations between the anxiety scales and academic performance was found. Implications of findings for the construction and use of anxiety scales were discussed. (21 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-esteem and trait anxiety in relation to drug misuse in Kuwait

This study was designed to document knowledge about Kuwaiti drug users and to investigate whether or not there is an association between their poor self-concept and high level of anxiety. One hundred and seven incarcerated drug users, 107 individuals serving prison terms for offenses other than drug use, and 107 "normal" individuals were included in this pilot study. The Arabic version of Rosenberg's Self-Esteem Scale and Spielberger's State-Trait Anxiety Inventory were used to measure the subjects' self-esteem and state-trait anxiety, respectively. The results documented revealed that there is a relationship between levels of self-esteem and anxiety in Kuwaiti drug user behavior.     

Relationship of manifest anxiety to stimulus generalization.

This study examined the relationship between anxiety and stimulus generalization in psychiatric patients. The results suggested that "there is no relationship between MAS [Manifest Anxiety Scale] and stimulus generalization in psychiatric Ss. Moreover, situational factors do not seem important in limiting the generality of such an interpretation. Since the relationships between anxiety and learning phenomena are generally well recognized, these negative results presumably reflect the inadequacy of the Taylor scale as a relevant index of anxiety levels in psychiatric subjects." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cicero and the state-trait theory of anxiety: Another case of delayed recognition.

L. T. Benjamin and R. Perloff (see record 1982-29251-001) quoted the work of F. W. Taylor as an anticipation of the Skinnerian principle of immediacy of reinforcement. The present author discusses the anticipation by Cicero, the Roman lawyer, orator, and political leader, almost 2,000 yrs ago, of the state-trait theory of anxiety proposed by R. B. Cattell and I. H. Scheier (1961). In his Tusculan Disputations, Cicero clearly distinguished between an anxious temperament (trait anxiety) and state anxiety. Cicero's anticipation of the modern reaction to psychiatry is also discussed. (6 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The trait anxiety-perception score: A composite predictor for state anxiety.

This article describes the development and initial evaluation of the A-Trait–Perception (ATP) score, a composite predictor for state anxiety. The ATP score is constructed from trait anxiety and situation perception data derived from the Endler Multidimensional Anxiety Scale by N. S. Endler et al (1989). ATP mathematically combines the individual's trait anxiety and situation perception profiles and adjusts these with a multiplier that reflects the individual's sensitivity to particular types of situational elements in terms of state anxiety inducement. The utility of the resulting composite variable as a predictor of state anxiety was examined in the context of two field studies. Results of both studies indicated that the ATP variable offered a superior prediction of state anxiety, as compared to four individual trait anxiety facets (social evaluation, physical danger, ambiguous and daily routines). The theoretical import of these results is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-perception theory and unobtrusively biased interactions: A treatment for heterosocial anxiety.

Assessed the effectiveness of a technique predicated on D. J. Bem's (1972) self-perception theory for reducing heterosocial anxiety in college males. 26 heterosocially anxious (as measured by the Situation Questionnaire), infrequently dating undergraduate males were randomly assigned to either an experimental or a waiting-list-control group. "Real life," pleasant, prearranged social interactions with females produced a highly significant change in self-perceptions concerning anxiety as measured by the Fear of Negative Evaluation Questionnaire, the Social Avoidance and Distress Scale, the Security–Insecurity Inventory, and the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. When Ss later interacted with an attractive female coed in a separate setting, state anxiety was less, and behavioral performance improved on 2 conversational skills. When measured after a 6-mo interval, the reduction in perceived heterosocial anxiety maintained itself and resulted in Ss having a significantly greater number of dates. Results are discussed in terms of self-efficacy and self-regulation and control theory. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Manifest anxiety and school achievement of adolescents.

Investigated the nature of relationships between manifest anxiety and school achievement of 700 Indian adolescents. An anxiety scale was administered under nonstress conditions about 4 mo. before the final examination. The achievement scores in the final examination included the scores obtained by the same Ss in a similar examination held a yr. earlier by the same university. The eta coefficients for the whole group and for the boys were significant beyond the .01 level, while the eta coefficient for the girls was significant at the .05 level. It is concluded that: (a) the relationship between these 2 variables is curvilinear, thus supporting the inverted U hypothesis, and (b) this relationship holds for both males and females. (28 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Need we measure anxiety differently for males and females?

Using 2 separate large samples of children (N1 = 957 and N2 = 3,885) and 1 smaller sample of adolescents and adults (N3 = 416), 3 studies of item selection for measurement of anxiety were conducted to determine if item selection differed across gender when traditional psychometric methods were applied. Applying a common set of item selection rules for males and for females, the same items were selected for inclusion on various measures of anxiety with differing item-response formats with comparable internal consistency reliability obtained using separate gender and combined gender samples. Standard psychometric methods indicate anxiety is measured in males and females about equally well and by essentially the same items.     

Effects of situational factors, sex, and attitude on affective self-disclosure and anxiety.

Examined the effects of sex of S and the situational factors of S role, type of feeling, and sex of best friend in relation to affective self-disclosure and self-reported anxiety of 20 male and 20 female undergraduates in simulated dyadic interactions. The relationship between attitude toward expressing feelings and affective self-disclosure behavior was also explored. The 2–4 repeated measures ANOVA for affective self-disclosure revealed significant main effects for all factors except S role. Significant interactions revealed that affective self-disclosure is sex-linked and situation specific, with females initiating positive feelings to their same-sex best friend being the most facilitative context for disclosure. Self-report anxiety results indicated that more anxiety was experienced when negative feelings were expressed. A significant correlation between Ss' attitude and performance scores was obtained, indicating that favorable attitudes toward expressing feelings are positively related to the expression of feelings. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Acute exercise combined with imaginal exposure as a technique for anxiety reduction.

Assessed the potential of physical exertion to enhance anxiety reduction by combining acute exercise with an imaginal exposure treatment for public speaking anxiety in 24 male and 28 female Ss from a college community. Ss were divided into 4 groups: exercise/exposure, exposure, exercise, or control. Results indicate that Ss receiving imaginal exposure improved more than controls in self-reported anxiety. The addition of acute exercise improved global ratings of treatment effectiveness in males and self-reported anxiety in males and females. Greater responding and greater habituation during treatment were associated with better outcome. Enhanced imagery, altered attribution for arousal, and reduced energy were associated with the addition of acute exercise to the exposure intervention. Findings suggest that acute exercise may be of circumscribed value as an adjunct to imaginal exposure. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Modified induced anxiety: A generalized anxiety reduction procedure.

A 25-yr-old male suffering from pervasive anxiety was treated with a modified induced anxiety procedure which attempted to focus the patient's awareness on the proprioceptive and somatic cues to anxiety, devoid of their situational context. A multiple-baseline design across 3 anxiety levels was used to demonstrate functional control over the problem behavior. Results indicate that as modified induced anxiety was sequentially applied to anxiety levels, there was a corresponding decline in self-monitored anxiety at the targeted level. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Interactional anxiety and the evaluation of driving skills: An empirical examination of a composite predictor for state anxiety.

Examined the validity of the trait anxiety-perception (TAP) score, a composite predictor for state anxiety (A-State), in 26 Ss (aged 16–49 yrs) who were waiting to take a driving test. The TAP score was constructed from trait anxiety (A-Trait) and situation perception data derived from the Endler Multidimensional Anxiety Scales (EMAS) and a revised version of the EMAS (P. R. King and N. S. Endler; see record 1990-06457-001). TAP scores mathematically combined the Ss' A-Trait and situation perception profiles and adjusted these with a multiplier that reflected Ss' sensitivity to situational elements, in terms of A-State inducement. Prediction of A-State based on the TAP score was superior to those provided by the social evaluation, physical danger, ambiguous, and daily routines A-Traits. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social anxiety and self-presentation: A conceptualization model.

Presents a self-presentation approach to the study of social anxiety that proposes that social anxiety arises when individuals are motivated to make a preferred impression on real or imagined audiences, but perceive or imagine unsatisfactory evaluative reactions from subjectively important audiences. The authors presume that specific situational and dispositional antecedents of social anxiety operate by influencing people's motivation to impress others and their expectations of satisfactorily doing so. In contrast to drive models of anxiety but consistent with social learning theory, it is argued that the cognitive state of the individual mediates both affective arousal and behavior. The traditional inverted-–U relation between anxiety and performance is reexamined in this light. Counseling implications are considered, including the recommendation that treatments be tailored to specific types of self-presentational problems. (142 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Predicting math anxiety and course performance in college women and men.

Examined the ability of the construct of mathematics anxiety (MAX) to predict the grades of 112 female and 72 male undergraduates in an introductory algebra course. Ss completed the Global Anxiety Scale, a MAX rating scale, and a measure of achieving tendency. Results show that MAX had little to do with course grades after controlling for mathematical aptitude, as measured by the Scholastic Aptitude Test. In addition, MAX was more strongly related to general anxiety in males than in females. This finding suggests that females seeking treatment for MAX are likely to profit from treatment that focuses specifically on mathematics situations. The higher level of MAX among females could not be explained on the basis of differential course-taking, since males had a similar mathematics background. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Medical intervention and the interaction model of anxiety.

Employed the interaction model of anxiety to assess the state anxiety of 30 females (aged 19–55 yrs) who underwent either a diagnostic dilation and curettage or a laparoscopy in hospital. Ss were administered the Present Affect Reactions Questionnaire, S-R Inventory of General Trait Anxiousness, and Perceptions of Situations Rating Form in both a high stress condition (2 hrs prior to undergoing the medical intervention) and a low stress condition (2 days after discharge). It was predicted that ambiguous trait anxiety would correlate significantly with state anxiety changes since the high stress condition was primarily ambiguous in nature. It was also predicted that significant correlations between state anxiety changes and the noncongruent facets of trait anxiety (interpersonal, physical danger, innocuous, and social evaluation) would not occur. Results indicate that the correlation between ambiguous trait anxiety and state anxiety change scores was significant and that none of the interpersonal, innocuous, and physical danger trait anxiety correlated with state anxiety changes. The unexpected significant correlation between state anxiety changes and social evaluation trait anxiety is attributed to the minimal components of social evaluation present in the high stress condition being relatively potent determinants of state anxiety for high social evaluation trait anxiety persons. (French abstract) (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The interaction model of anxiety and the threat of Quebec's separation from Canada.

The interaction model of anxiety was investigated by assessing trait and state anxiety in students at a Canadian university during the Quebec referendum. The results of Study 1 confirmed that the threat of separation by Quebec from Canada was perceived as an ambiguous, uncertain situation. In Study 2, reactions to this situation were assessed by having participants complete measures of anxiety and situation perception at Time 1 (i.e., 3 hr before the event) and Time 2 (i.e., 1 week after the vote). The results provide support for the interaction model; individuals who were high in trait anxiety in ambiguous situations and appraised the referendum situation as threatening were characterized by elevated state anxiety before the uncertain outcome of the vote. The results illustrate the need to examine trait anxiety and specific appraisals of situational threat in uncertain life situations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)