Relative efficacy of self-reward, self-punishment, and self-monitoring techniques for weight loss.

Randomly assigned 48 female and 5 male obese adults to 5 groups: (a) self-reward, (b) self-punishment, (c) self-reward and self-punishment, (d) self-monitoring, and (e) information control. All Ss were given information on effective stimulus control techniques for weight loss. Self-monitoring Ss were asked to weigh in twice per week for 4 wks and to record their daily weight and eating habits. Self-reward and self-punishment Ss, in addition to receiving self-monitoring instructions, were asked to award or fine themselves a portion of their deposit contingent on changes in their weight and eating habits. After 4 wks of treatment, self-reward Ss lost significantly more weight than either self-monitoring or control Ss. At a 4-mo follow-up, Ss who had received self-reward instructions continued to show greater improvement than either the self-punishment or control Ss. Findings provide a preliminary indication that self-reward strategies are superior to self-punitive and self-recording strategies in the modification of at least some habit patterns. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Minority students' self-control of procrastination.

Examined the effects of self-monitoring alone and self-monitoring plus self-reward on 3 academic and 3 related procrastinative behaviors of 6 academically disadvantaged minority undergraduates. It was hypothesized that self-monitoring plus self-reward would increase academic behaviors and decrease related procrastinating behaviors. It was also predicted that self-monitoring alone would not be as effective as with reward. A 3rd hypothesis was that Ss would be able to maintain multiple self-reward contracts simultaneously. Research assistants recorded academic, procrastinative, and percentage of initial contract maintenance behaviors. Results indicate that Ss self-monitored consistently and accurately and self-rewarded frequently the occurrences of their academic behaviors. Self-monitoring alone did not reduce academic or procrastinative behaviors. Self-monitoring plus self-reward was effective in producing substantial increases in academic behaviors and grades and in producing decreases in related procrastinative behaviors. Ss were able to initiate sequential multiple self-reward contracts and to continue these self-reward contracts simultaneously. (40 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of verbal and self-monitoring feedback on Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale performance in normal adults.

Hypothesized that feedback for correct and incorrect responses may be the salient feature in inducing test performance in adults. 60 undergraduates were administered an abbreviated form of the WAIS in 1 of 3 conditions--no feedback, praise for correct answers, or a self-monitoring condition in which Ss were given feedback and instructed to record their points. Results suggest that feedback coupled with self-monitoring feedback is effective in inducing IQ test performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Employee reaction to continuous and variable ratio reinforcement schedules involving a monetary incentive.

Examined the performance of 12 mountain beaver trappers (aged 21–40 yrs) when a monetary incentive was administered on continuous and VR-4 schedules of reinforcement. On alternate weeks (over a 12-wk period), Ss received $1 for every beaver caught. On the VR-4 schedule, each S received $4 contingent on presenting the beaver to the supervisor and correctly predicting an even or odd number on a dice roll. Consistent with operant theory, the performance of Ss was higher on the VR-4 reinforcement schedule. Ss were interviewed to determine what they viewed as differentiating the 2 schedules of reinforcement. Based on the interviews, a questionnaire was developed and administered. Results indicate that the VR-4 schedule was perceived as including job enrichment variables such as recognition, task variety, task accomplishment, and feedback, whereas this was less likely to be the case when the incentive was paid on a continuous schedule. (10 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Attitudes, self-monitoring, and appraisal behaviors.

This study examined the influence of attitudes and self-monitoring on leniency (elevation accuracy) of performance ratings and personnel decisions. In addition, moderating effects of self-monitoring on the relationship between attitudes and accuracy of ratings and decisions were investigated. Attitudes and self-monitoring tendency of 210 managers–professionals were measured, and ratings provided and decisions made by them were used to test 3 sets of hypotheses. Moderated regression and follow-up split-group analyses indicated that self-monitoring moderated the relationship between attitudes toward accurate appraisal and rating accuracy. Self-monitoring significantly influenced rating and decision accuracy such that accuracy declined with increasing level of self-monitoring. Results highlight the influence of rater's personality on appraisal behaviors. Implications of results and directions for future research are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of frequency of feedback on a simple coaction task.

Used a learned drive approach to predict the effects of feedback on a coaction task; 60 female undergraduates were Ss. It was hypothesized that the magnitude of social facilitation would be greater the more often Ss were given feedback of their own or the other coactor's performance. The frequency of feedback was manipulated by varying the number of responses required to produce a tone. Coactors received a tone after every 4 (FR4) or 7 (FR7) responses and performed in the presence of another person who was either on an FR4 or an FR7 schedule. To furnish a comparison to the coaction conditions, some Ss were tested individually on an FR4 and others on an FR7 schedule. Within the coaction conditions, the most responding occurred when both Ss received an FR4 schedule, and the fewest responses when both coactors were on an FR7 schedule. An intermediate number of responses was produced when one coactor was on an FR4 and the other on an FR7 schedule. Also, Ss working in coaction conditions responded more than those performing alone. (9 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

When self-regulation fails: Tests of some preliminary hypotheses.

In a laboratory study designed to investigate variables that affect self-regulatory dysfunctioning, 96 college students volunteered to practice solving mathematics problems similar to those found on graduate school admissions tests. They were assigned to groups in which they either self-recorded inaccurate problem solving (negative self-monitoring, NSM), self-recorded accurate problem solving (positive self-monitoring, PSM), did not self-record but received immediate performance feedback, or did not self-record or receive immediate feedback (control). Groups were matched on ability and received either easy or difficult problems. Ss also completed Byrne's Repression–Sensitization Scale. Predictions derived from the closed loop model of self-regulation were supported in that NSM, relative to other conditions, led to lowered self-evaluations, decreased favorableness of self-consequations (self-reinforcement/punishment), and somewhat increased association of anxiety with performance. NSM also led to decreased accuracy in performance, but in comparison to PSM, it facilitated sustained self-monitoring (self-initiated viewing of a videotape of Ss' own problem-solving activity) when the task was relatively simple. All groups decreased sustained self-monitoring when the task was relatively difficult. Theoretical and clinical implications are discussed, and attention is drawn to the role of affect in self-regulation. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Strategy training and attributional feedback with learning disabled students.

Investigated the effects of verbalization of subtraction with regrouping operations and effort-attributional feedback on the self-efficacy and skillful performance of 90 Ss (aged 11 yrs 2 mo to 16 yrs 2 mo) in Grades 6–8 who were classified as learning disabled in mathematics. Ss received training and solved problems over sessions. Ss in the 1st condition verbalized aloud while solving problems (continuous verbalization), those in the 2nd condition verbalized only during the 1st half of training (discontinued verbalization), and those in the 3rd condition did not verbalize (no verbalization). All Ss were periodically monitored and received effort feedback during the 1st half of training, effort feedback during the 2nd half of training, or no effort feedback. Findings show that continuous verbalization led to higher self-efficacy and skillful performance than did discontinued and no verbalization; providing effort feedback promoted these achievement behaviors more than not providing feedback did. Effort feedback during the 1st half of training enhanced effort attributions. The process by which verbalization promotes achievement outcomes is discussed. (42 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-monitoring effects in a program for potential high school dropouts: A time-series analysis.

Instructed 17 "potential high school dropouts" in a special-education program to self-monitor their frequency of oral class participation (or nonparticipation). The reactive and therapeutic effects of this self-monitoring were assessed on 3 dependent variables using a multiple-time-series design with 2 experimental groups, 4 experimental periods, and a crossover of experimental treatments. Self-monitoring significantly affected Ss' rates of oral class participation, and to some extent their daily grades, but not their frequency of extraclassroom visits to the teachers' office. Ss showed an increase in the particular response they were monitoring (i.e., talking or no talking). The use of a time-series methodology is discussed. (24 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of contingent and noncontingent feedback and subject expectancies on electoencephalogram biofeedback training.

80 undergraduates either received auditory feedback contingent on their production of alpha or they received noncontingent feedback. In addition, Ss were led to expect either a positive or a negative experience. Ss who received contingent feedback produced significantly more alpha than Ss who received noncontingent feedback, but the type of feedback did not seem related to mood. Instead, Ss led to expect a positive experience reported significant reductions in anxiety. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of positive and negative feedback and degree of discrepancy on responses to test results.

169 undergraduates received falsified psychological test results that were discrepant in either positive or negative directions with their own reports on self-referring attitudes. They were then given the opportunity to change their self-reports and/or derogate the accuracy of the test interpreter. Ss who received negative feedback were more likely to derogate the interpreter, whereas Ss who received positive feedback were more likely to change their self-reports in the direction of the interpretation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of information feedback and self-administered consequences on self-monitoring study behavior.

Self-monitoring involves systematic self-observation followed by self-recording. Three hypotheses were tested in this experiment: (a) the previous finding that that self-monitoring changes study behavior would be replicated; (b) information feedback accounts for some of this behavior change; and (c) this behavior change can be enhanced by manipulating the quantity and quality of information feedback and self-administered consequences associated with self-monitoring. 87 volunteer college students concerned about their study habits were randomly assigned to a no-treatment control group, a study skills advice group, or 1 of 6 self-monitoring plus study skills advice groups. The design included a no-contact control group of 9 nonvolunteers. Grade, questionnaire, and self-monitoring data clearly support the 1st 2 hypotheses, but not the 3rd. The 2nd hypothesis was supported by the finding that students lacking accurate information about the extent (i.e., amount) of their study behavior benefited more from self-monitoring than those who were already knowledgeable about their study behavior. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-monitoring of attained subgoals in private study.

Compared 3 conditions of self-monitoring of private study for their effects on academic performance and intrinsic motivation. Ss were 240 1st-yr college students who were divided among high, moderate, and low achievers. Within each group, Ss were assigned to 1 of 4 study conditions: self-monitor subgoal condition, self-monitor time-on-study condition, self-monitor distal-goal condition, and control condition. In end-of-year examinations, Ss who self-monitored subgoals outperformed Ss who self-monitored either time or study or distal goals on the target course of the investigation. Furthermore, although Ss who self-monitored duration of study actually spent significantly longer on study, their examination performance was not significantly better than that of control Ss. Besides the beneficial effects on learning, subgoal self-monitoring enhanced intrinsic interest in the target course, as evidenced from Ss' ratings. Requiring Ss to turn in samples of study notes did not have an impact on examination performance; however, this requirement interacted with study condition in its effect on intrinsic interest. (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-monitoring in behavioral medicine: Children.

Self-monitoring in children is a valuable method for collecting data, some of which may be obtained in no other way. Self-monitoring has been particularly prevalent in behavioral medicine. This article discusses children's monitoring of their own behavior and parental monitoring when the child is too young to self-monitor (e.g., an infant) and the parent is monitoring as a proxy for the child's own monitoring. Factors that influence the choice of who will perform the monitoring and the accuracy of the monitoring are considered. Monitoring may occur for assessment purposes only or may be an active part of treatment; both of these uses of self-monitoring are described. Barriers to accurate self-monitoring, as well as strategies to increase accuracy, are discussed. Self-monitoring is an integral part of disease assessment and management for many children, and the research described provides suggestions for improvements in the use of self-monitoring in children's behavioral medicine in the future. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Area and volume conservation among the elderly: Assessment and training.

Conducted 2 studies to examine whether the elderly maintain the competence to adequately solve problems of logical thinking. In the 1st study the performance of 60 noninstitutionalized middle-class elderly females was assessed on area and volume conservation tasks. On overall performance only 33.3% of the Ss were classified as conservers. In the 2nd study a training paradigm was used to determine whether simple verbal feedback activated the strategies required for adequate performance on conservation tasks. 22 Ss who failed at least 2 conservation tasks in the assessment study were administered a 20-trial training procedure. Half of these Ss received simple verbal feedback following each response, while half received no feedback. Results on an immediate posttest indicated that the feedback group performed significantly better than the control group on the near transfer posttest task and on the majority of far transfer tasks. The results are discussed in terms of a distinction between competence and performance. (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Drug choice as a self-handicapping strategy in response to noncontingent success.

In 2 experiments, college student Ss were instructed to choose between a drug that allegedly interfered with performance and a drug that allegedly enhanced performance. This choice was the main dependent measure of the experiment. The drug choice intervened between work on soluble or insoluble problems and a promised retest on similar problems. In Exp I with 68 males and 43 females, all Ss received success feedback after their initial problem-solving attempts, thus creating one condition in which the success appeared to be accidental (noncontingent on performance) and one in which the success appeared to be contingent on appropriate knowledge. Males in the noncontingent-success condition were alone in preferring the performance-inhibiting drug, presumably because they wished to externalize probable failure on the retest. The predicted effect, however, did not hold for female Ss. Exp II, with 87 Ss, replicated the unique preference shown by males after noncontingent success and showed the critical importance of success feedback. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Expectations for success on effort-determined tasks as a function of incentive and performance feedback.

Conducted 2 experiments to investigate an attributional analysis of the consequences of perceiving one's effort as stable, as opposed to unstable, on future performance expectancies. In Exp I, 32 male undergraduates were told that performance on the experimental tasks was purely effort determined; they expected a monetary incentive for good performance on half the tasks and received preprogrammed feedback that their performance was either variable or consistent. In Exp II, both 45 male and 51 female Ss believed the tasks were either effort or ability determined and received variable or consistent feedback; incentive was operationalized as the level of task interestingness. As predicted, Ss who believed performance was effort determined and received variable feedback had higher expectations for performance on a later task when its incentive value was high than when it was low. Ss receiving consistent feedback did not differ in their expectations, regardless of the incentive value of the task. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Differential proprioceptive feedback and DRL performance of normal and septal rats.

In a study with 18 Long-Evans hooded rats, normal Ss and Ss with septal lesions were run on a differential reinforcement of low rate schedule in the presence or absence of a differential response feedback produced by systematically varying the force required to depress the lever. For each of 3 treatment conditions, the required force either decreased, increased, or remained constant. By the end of training, normal and lesioned Ss were not significantly different from each other on all performance measures examined when differential response feedback was provided (i.e., decreasing or increasing force). However, significant lesion-normal differences were present when such feedback was absent (i.e., constant force). (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of self-control training on study activity and academic performance: An analysis of self-monitoring, self-reward, and systematic-planning components.

Examined the relative efficacy of training in self-monitoring, self-reward, and planning as aids to self-control. 96 university students who, prior to treatment, did not differ on measures of scholastic achievement or study habits, were assigned to 6 groups, including a control group that received no treatment. Ss in the 5 treatment groups received training in a standard study method (SQ3R) and received different degrees of training in the components of self-control. Dependent measures included time spent studying, number of assigned study tasks completed, and change from pretreatment to posttreatment on quiz scores, GPA, and a standard measure (Survey of Study Habits and Attitudes) of study habits. Results indicate that neither training in self-monitoring alone nor self-monitoring plus self-reward techniques yielded significantly better performance than training in study methods alone. The group that received training in self-monitoring, self-reward, and planning strategies significantly outperformed other groups on nearly all measures. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-monitoring of classroom behaviors with students exhibiting emotional and behavioral challenges.

Examined the effectiveness of a self-monitoring package (SMP) on the task engagement and disruptive behaviors of 2 elementary school children (10-yr-old female and 11-yr-old male). Ss received full-time special education services for students with severe emotional disturbance. This SMP was comprised of periodic cuing, self-recording of individually-determined target behaviors, feedback, and reinforcement for accurate self-monitoring. Results indicated that SMP was highly effective in increasing task engagement while decreasing disruptive behavior. Data add to the growing testimony regarding the utility of self-monitoring and SMPs as effective and proactive components of behavioral support for students with emotional and behavioral challenges. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)