Nutrient removal by NF and RO membranes in a decentralized sanitation system

Decentralized treatment of domestic wastewater offers the possibility of water and nutrient reuse. In a decentralized sanitation system the household wastewater streams are separated in a large diluted stream (gray water) and a small and concentrated stream (black water) containing important nutrients like ammonium and phosphate. Nanofiltration (NF) and reverse osmosis (RO) membranes might be used to recover the nutrients from anaerobically treated black water. The permeate might be used in a water reuse scheme. In case of water reuse the produced permeate should meet guidelines for potable water or meet new guidelines which might be applied in the future for intermediate quality of water, for example toilet flushwater; when this is not possible the permeate should meet guidelines for discharge. The most stringent guidelines apply for ammonium and phosphate. The focus of this paper is to test commercially available NF and RO membranes to remove nutrients from anaerobically treated black water in order to meet the Dutch guidelines. A large number of commercial tubular, capillary and flat sheet NF and RO membranes was tested on laboratory scale on their performance to meet the Dutch guidelines for ammonium and phosphate. The ammonium and phosphate concentrations used were based on the effluent composition of anaerobically treated black water. Ammonium and phosphate rejection were both measured in synthetic single salt and multi-ion mixtures and in anaerobic effluent. The rejection for ammonium (30-95%) is neither sufficient for discharge nor potable water use. The rejection of phosphate (74-99%) is in most cases almost sufficient to meet the standards for potable water.     

Groundwater quality impacts from the land application of treated municipal wastewater in a large karstic spring basin: Chemical and microbiological indicators

Geochemical and microbiological techniques were used to assess water-quality impacts from the land application of treated municipal wastewater in the karstic Wakulla Springs basin in northern Florida. Nitrate-N concentrations have increased from about 0.2 to as high as 1.1 mg/L (milligrams per liter) during the past 30 years in Wakulla Springs, a regional discharge point for groundwater (mean flow about 11.3 m³/s) from the Upper Floridan aquifer (UFA). A major source of nitrate to the UFA is the approximately 64 million L/d (liters per day) of treated municipal wastewater applied at a 774 ha (hectare) sprayfield farming operation. About 260 chemical and microbiological indicators were analyzed in water samples from the sprayfield effluent reservoir, wells upgradient from the sprayfield, and from 21 downgradient wells and springs to assess the movement of contaminants into the UFA. Concentrations of nitrate-N, boron, chloride, were elevated in water samples from the sprayfield effluent reservoir and in monitoring wells at the sprayfield boundary. Mixing of sprayfield effluent water was indicated by a systematic decrease in concentrations of these constituents with distance downgradient from the sprayfield, with about a 10-fold dilution at Wakulla Springs, about 15 km (kilometers) downgradient from the sprayfield. Groundwater with elevated chloride and boron concentrations in wells downgradient from the sprayfield and in Wakulla Springs had similar nitrate isotopic signatures, whereas the nitrate isotopic composition of water from other sites was consistent with inorganic fertilizers or denitrification. The sprayfield operation was highly effective in removing most studied organic wastewater and pharmaceutical compounds and microbial indicators. Carbamazepine (an anti-convulsant drug) was the only pharmaceutical compound detected in groundwater from two sprayfield monitoring wells (1-2 ppt). One other detection of carbamazepine was found in a distant well water sample where enteroviruses also were detected, indicating a likely influence from a nearby septic tank.     

Growth of sulfate-reducing bacteria under acidic conditions in an upflow anaerobic bioreactor as a treatment system for acid mine drainage

The aim of this investigation was to develop a system for the remediation of acid mine drainage using sulphate-reducing bacteria. An upflow porous medium bioreactor was inoculated with sulphate-reducing bacteria (SRB) and operated under acidic conditions. The reactor was operated under continuous flow and was shown to be capable of sulfate reduction at pH 4.5, 4.0, 3.5 and 3.25 in a medium containing 16.1 mM sodium lactate. This contrasted previously published work which showed that, at pH 3.8, organic acid concentrations greater than 5 mM completely inhibited biological sulfate-reduction. At pH 3.25 the reactor removed 38.3% of influent sulfate and raised the pH of the medium to 5.82. The lactate carbon source was exhausted under these conditions. At pH 3.0, sulfide production was below detectable levels, and sulfate removal fell to 14.4%. However, viable SRB were recovered from the column after 21 days of operation at pH 3.0, indicating that SRB are capable of withstanding pH 3.0 for extended periods. From these results we can conclude that an SRB process would be a viable method of remediating AMD.     

Hydrological and chemical factors controlling the concentrations of Fe, Cu, Zn and As in a river system contaminated by acid mine drainage

The seasonal variations in the trace element concentrations and flow rates in the Carnon River system, south west England have been investigated on a monthly basis for a period of 1 yr. Approximately 85% of Fe, Zn and As, and 45% of Cu originate from mine waters. A strong seasonal dependence of the flux of trace elements in the natural and mine waters is observed. There appears to be a direct correlation between trace element concentrations and the proportion of infiltrated surface drainage in mine waters. Rises in these concentrations in the Carnon River due to increased fluxes from mine waters in winter months are offset by higher flow rates in surface discharge.Iron is transported predominantly in the particulate phase in Carnon River waters and virtually all dissolved Fe (< 0.45 μm) precipitates in estuarine waters. Dissolved concentrations of Cu, Zn and As appear to be regulated by sorptive processes particularly with Fe oxyhydroxides in both fresh and saline waters.     

Reduced membrane fouling in a novel bio-entrapped membrane reactor for treatment of food and beverage processing wastewater

A novel Bio-Entrapped Membrane Reactor (BEMR) packed with bio-ball carriers was constructed and investigated for organics removal and membrane fouling by soluble microbial products (SMP). An objective was to evaluate the stability of the filtration process in membrane bioreactors through backwashing and chemical cleaning. The novel BEMR was compared to a conventional membrane bioreactor (CMBR) on performance, with both treating identical wastewater from a food and beverage processing plant. The new reactor has a longer sludge retention time (SRT) and lower mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS) content than does the conventional. Three different hydraulic retention times (HRTs) of 6, 9, and 12 h were studied. The results show faster rise of the transmembrane pressure (TMP) with decreasing hydraulic retention time (HRT) in both reactors, where most significant membrane fouling was associated with high SMP (consisting of carbohydrate and protein) contents that were prevalent at the shortest HRT of 6 h. Membrane fouling was improved in the new reactor, which led to a longer membrane service period with the new reactor. Rapid membrane fouling was attributed to increased production of biomass and SMP, as in the conventional reactor. SMP of 10-100 kDa from both MBRs were predominant with more than 70% of the SMP <100 kDa. Protein was the major component of SMP rather than carbohydrate in both reactors. The new reactor sustained operation at constant permeate flux that required seven times less frequent chemical cleaning than did the conventional reactor. The new BEMR offers effective organics removal while reducing membrane fouling.     

Toxicity and potential risk assessment of a river polluted by acid mine drainage in the Iberian Pyrite Belt (SW Spain)

Metal contamination from acid mine drainage (AMD) is a serious problem in the southwest of the Iberian Peninsula, where the Iberian Pyrite Belt is located. This zone contains original sulfide reserves of about 1700 Mt distributed among more than 50 massive sulfide deposits. Weathering of these minerals releases to the waters significant quantities of toxic elements, which severely affect the sediments and surface waters of the region. The main goal of this paper is to evaluate the toxicity and the potential risk associated with the mining areas using Microtox test and different factors which assess the degree of contamination of the sediments and waters. For this, a natural stream polluted by AMD-discharge from an abandoned mine has been studied. The results show that elevated concentrations of Cu, As and Zn involve an important potential risk on the aquatic environment, associated both with sediments and waters. Microtox test informs that the sediments are extremely or very toxic, mainly related to concentrations of Fe, As, Cr, Al, Cd, Cu and Zn. Pollution is mainly transferred to the sediments increasing their potential toxicity. A natural creek affected by AMD can store a huge amount of pollution in its sediments while exhibiting a not very low water pH and low water metal concentration.