Physicochemical and sensory evaluation of wine brandies aged using oak and chestnut wood simultaneously in wooden barrels and in stainless steel tanks with staves

This study provides innovative information on the simultaneous use of Limousin oak and chestnut wood in the ageing of wine brandy. Ageing was performed in 650‐L wooden barrels and in 3000‐L stainless steel tanks with staves over a 2‐year period. Effect of both kinds of wood in the brandy features depended on the ageing technology. Stainless steel tanks with staves originated lower enrichment of the brandy in dry extract (0.89 vs. 1.25 g L^?1), total phenolics (22.33 vs. 29.40) and low molecular weight extractable compounds (119.83 vs. 231.65 mg L^?1), but promoted a faster evolution of the analytical colour (lower L*, higher C*, a* and b*) and sensory colour (topaz and greenish vs. golden). The aroma and flavour profiles of the brandy were not significantly influenced by the ageing technology. Therefore, it is a promising option for both ageing technologies because it ensures the quality of brandy, together with a lower cost of the wood and exemption of the blending operation.     

Phenolic compounds in oak wood extracts used in the ageing of brandies

The oak wood extracts used in brandy production are extremely varied because of the different ways in which they are made: by infusion, by boiling or by maceration, with or without prior physical or chemical treatment of the wood. Such extracts release a large quantity of phenolic compounds and a very small amount of partially degraded lignin into the brandy, unlike spirits aged in oak barrels. Among monomer compounds derived from lignin, the presence of vanillic and syringic acids, vanillin, syringaldehyde, coniferaldehyde and sinapaldehyde can be noted. In the wood extracts, phenolic compounds and aromatic acids frequently dominate the ligno-complex and aromatic aldehydes respectively, which is not the case in brandies. Two samples of liquid extracts of oak wood displayed statistically aberrant vanillin contents.     

Effect of oak barrel type on the volatile composition of wine: Storage time optimization

When it comes to deciding about the length of time for ageing wine in barrels it is necessary to take into account several factors such as wine composition and characteristics of barrels. Adapting wood to wine is not an easy matter. Ageing duration is highly variable depending on a wine's origin, type and quality. The aim of this study is to investigate the behaviour of new barrels and once-used barrels depending on the ageing period of wine. From the results obtained it can be seen that for ageing wine during a short period (6-9 months), there was quite a big difference in the concentration of most of the oak wood compounds between wine aged in new barrels and wine aged in once-used barrels. However, due to the chemical or biochemical transformations of certain compounds from oak wood in wine over time, their concentration in long-term ageing (12-15 months) was similar for both wine aged in new barrels and in once-used barrels. The compounds which became more exhausted from barrel use were, furanic aldehydes, phenolic alcohols, phenolic aldehydes, and oak-lactones.     

Phenolic compounds in a Spanish red wine aged in barrels made of Spanish,French and American oak wood

A red Rioja wine was aged in barrels made of Spanish oak wood for 21 months. The evolutions of colour percentage intensity, families of phenolic compounds and low molecular weight phenolic compounds were studied in these wines and compared with those of the same wine aged in barrels made of French and American oak. The analysis of chromatic parameters and total anthocyanins indicates that the wines aged in Spanish and French oak wood barrels have similar chromatic characteristics, but are significantly different to those of wines aged in barrels made of American oak wood, indicating a different degree of modification of the colour. The ageing process also had an important influence on the low molecular weight polyphenols composition of wine. The evolution of these components allowed the production of wines with different characteristics, in relation to the type of wood used in barrel making process. On the other hand, Spanish oak wood can be considered suitable for barrel production for quality wines, since a wine aged in barrels made of Spanish oak wood showed similar and intermediate characteristics to those of the same wine aged in French and American oak woods.     

Effect of ellagitannins,ellagic acid and volatile compounds from oak wood on the (+)‐catechin,procyanidin B1 and malvidin‐3‐glucoside content of model wines

Background and Aims: During ageing in oak barrels, wine undergoes changes because of the release of polyphenols and other molecules from wood. The aim of this study was to evaluate the influence of some oak wood‐derived volatile compounds, ellagic acid and oak wood extracts on the levels of (+)‐catechin, procyanidin B1 and malvidin‐3‐glucoside. Methods and Results: Phenolics and the oak wood derived volatile compounds studied were quantified by HPLC and by GC, respectively. Additionally, the new compounds formed in the solutions were characterised by their spectral properties. Ellagic acid and/or oak wood extracts slowed the decline in the levels of (+)‐catechin and procyanidin B1. In contrast, the decrease in malvidin‐3‐glucoside was more pronounced in the presence of ellagic acid and oak wood chip extracts. Furfural slowed (+)‐catechin degradation, while breakdown of malvidin‐3‐glucoside was slightly more pronounced in the presence of guaiacol, furfural, vanillin and eugenol. (+)‐Catechin, procyanidin B1 and malvidin‐3‐glucoside did not significantly affect the rate of the degradation of ellagitannins during the storage time studied. Finally, new HPLC peaks were detected in the solutions containing (+)‐catechin and ellagic acid, as well as with malvidin‐3‐glucoside with ellagic acid and oak wood extract. Conclusions: Malvidin 3‐glucoside and (+)‐catechin and procyanidin B1 presented distinct behaviours during time in the presence of volatile and non‐volatile compounds from oak wood. Significance of the Study: This work points out the importance of oak wood components in the degradation of anthocyanins and tannins, as well as the reactions that occur during the ageing of red wine.     

Volatile and semi-volatile components of oak wood chips analysed by Accelerated Solvent Extraction (ASE) coupled to gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS)

Volatile and semi-volatile compounds of French and American oak wood used in wine and spirits ageing were extracted by an Accelerated Solvent Extractor (ASE) and analysed by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. More than 90 compounds were isolated, characterised and quantified after being separated on two chromatographic columns with distinct polarity. The main oak wood components were quantitatively determined by using standard reference compounds. In addition, a number of compounds, mainly guaiacol and syringol derivatives, were detected and characterised. In particular, 10 compounds were tentatively identified as lignin dimers derivatives, whose presence in oak wood chips or barrels for wine and spirits ageing had not been previously described. Several of the characterised compounds enabled a distinction to be drawn between medium and high toasted wood chips, independently of their geographical origin.     

Formation of volatile and maturation‐related congeners during the aging of sugarcane spirit in oak barrels

The aging process of distilled spirits is a complex system based on the extraction of molecules from the wood and interactions with the liquid, the phenomenon of migration of wood constituents, as well as the formation and degradation of several compounds. Volatile and maturation‐related congeners were evaluated during the aging process of cachaça, a Brazilian sugarcane spirit aged in oak barrels. Aged cachaça presented alterations in the levels of ethanol, higher alcohols, acetaldehyde, volatile acidity, ethyl acetate, total volatile congeners, isoamyl alcohol, ethyl carbamate and copper. The aging markers (gallic acid, furfural, 5‐hydroxymethylfurfural, vanillic acid, syringic acid, vanillin, syringaldehyde, sinapaldehyde and coniferaldehyde) were compared with the compounds found in whisky, cognac, armagnac, bourbon and brandy. Monitoring the generation and evolution of congeners during the aging process allowed the characterization of cachaça and the identification of product maturity. Copyright © 2014 The Institute of Brewing & Distilling     

电场对白兰地陈酿中氧化还原电位和电导率的影响研究

研究了电场作用于5 L和2 L法国中度烘烤的橡木桶强化白兰地陈酿过程中氧化还原电位和电导率等的变化规律。结果显示,白兰地中氧化还原电位呈先增加后减小的趋势,在5 L橡木桶中,电场处理样的氧化还原电位比自然陈酿样在6个月时增加了10.6%,而在12个月时减少了6.6%;电导率呈现递增的趋势,且电场处理样均高于同期自然陈酿样的值,在5 L橡木桶中,电场处理样的电导率比自然陈酿样在12个月时增加了14.6%;在2 L橡木桶中增加了14.3%。研究表明,电场作用可促进酒体中氧化还原电位和电导率达到稳定的平衡状态。     

The effect of oak wood source, location of seasoning and coopering on the composition of volatile compounds in oak-matured wines

The effect of geographical origin and place of seasoning and coopering of oakwood on the concentration of 20 compounds extracted into, or formed in, Chardonnay, Cabernet Sauvignon and model wines during barrel maturation is described. The oak from which the barrels were fabricated was sourced from the Vosges and Limousin regions and the Tronçais forest in France, and from Ohio in the USA, and was seasoned in either Australia, France or the USA. Wines matured in Vosges oak barrels contained the highest concentrations of cis and trans- oak lactone and eugenol. The Limousin oak barrels imparted lower levels of cis- oak lactone and eugenol to the wines than did the other French oaks. However, the Limousin-oaked wines were richer in these compounds than the American-oaked wines. These results reflected the previously reported composition profiles of the oak-wood from which the barrels were fabricated. Oak seasoned and coopered in Australia generally imparted more cis- oak lactone, eugenol and the coopering products vanillin and furfural into the wines than did the oak seasoned in France or the USA. Although medium toast had been specified for all barrels, there was considerable variability in the concentration of compounds formed by coopering in the wines. Apparent random microbiological activity in the wines also contributed substantially to variation in wine composition. As a likely result of coopering and microbiological variability, few consistent origin or seasoning effects on the compounds resulting from coopering or microbiological action during oak maturation were observed.     

Maturation related phenolic compounds in cachaça aged in new oak barrels

Aging cachaça in wooden barrels improves its chemical and sensory profile and adds quality. Maturation of distilled spirits is influenced by factors such as the species of wood to make the barrels, degree of internal toasting, number of uses of the barrel and aging time. The level of maturation of distillates can be determined based on the concentration of age marker phenolic compounds extracted from the lignin of the wooden barrel, as well as their relationships with each other. This study characterises the aging process of cachaça by analysing the mechanism of lignin degradation during maturation in new oak barrels for up to 60 months in order to establish the relationship between the age of the distillate and the content of phenolic compounds extracted from the wood. The evaluation was based on the analyses of liginin derived compounds using high‐performance liquid chromatography. The level of maturation of aged cachaça can be characterised by evaluating the low molecular weight lignin‐derived phenolic substances. The total amount of benzoic acids (vanillic and syringic acids) can be taken into consideration for predicting the level of maturation of distillates. Based on the composition of maturation related congeners, it is likely that for cachaça, each year of aging in new oak barrels corresponds to approximately five years of aging for spirits in general. © 2020 The Institute of Brewing & Distilling     

Effect of micro-oxygenation on the evolution of aromatic compounds in wines: Malolactic fermentation and ageing in wood

The effect of micro-oxygenation on the aromas of two varietal wines (Tempranillo and Cabernet Sauvignon) when alcoholic fermentation is complete was examined. Several factors, such as whether malolactic fermentation (MLF) took place in barrels or stainless steel vats and ageing time in oak barrels, were taken into account. Major aroma components were studied using GC-FID and minor compounds were studied by GC-MS analysis before and after MLF and after 4 and 8 months of maturation in oak barrels. Sensorial analysis was performed to describe and quantify the different wine notes. Micro-oxygenation affects different compounds but the effect depends to a great extent on the grape varietal used; the effect of micro-oxygenation was more marked on the aroma of Cabernet Sauvignon wine than Tempranillo wines. The concentration of extractable compounds of wood was higher in wines after MLF in barrels than in wines after MLF in steel vats; wines with steel vat MLF had fewer toast and wood notes. The compounds that showed significant differences in concentration after 8 months of maturation were present in higher concentrations in wines fermented in barrels than in stainless steel vats. Barrel-fermented wines were sweeter, with wood and toast notes, fewer alcohol notes and fewer reductive notes.     

电场对橡木桶陈酿白兰地中杂醇油的影响

为了加快白兰地在橡木桶中的物化反应,缩短陈酿周期,采用电场强化技术对橡木桶进行处理,研究了电场对贮存在5L橡木桶中的白兰地酒进行强化处理过程中杂醇油的含量变化情况.白兰地酒经过14个月的陈酿,发现电场处理样的杂醇油含量降低速率要高于同期的自然陈酿样.例如,电场处理样的杂醇油含量比自然陈酿样在2、6、10及14个月时含量分别降低了30.87mg/L、8.26mg/L、7.69mg/L、11.22mg/L.结果表明,电场直接处理橡木桶可以降低白兰地酒中的杂醇油含量,提高白兰地品质.     

Chemical and chromatic characteristics of Tempranillo,Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot wines from DO Navarra aged in Spanish and French oak barrels

The oenological quality of Spanish oak wood from Navarra (Quercus petraea Liebl.) in relation to French wood of recognised quality in cooperage has been evaluated. We have studied the effects of the Spanish wood on wine evolution during ageing, in regards to chromatic characteristics, polyphenols, and volatile compounds related to oak wood, in three different mono-varietal wines (cv. Tempranillo, cv. Cabernet Sauvignon and cv. Merlot) from the Origin Denomination Navarra. The results were compared with those obtained for the same wines aged in French oak barrels from central regions of France, obtained from five different French and Spanish cooperages.     

Hydrolysis of glycosidically bound flavour compounds from oak wood by Oenococcus oeni

Malolactic fermentation (MLF), which is conducted by lactic acid bacteria (LAB), has a significant influence on the stability and organoleptic quality of wine. Recent studies have shown that when MLF is carried out in oak wood barrels, LAB were also able to interact with wood and increase volatile compound contents such as vanillin during MLF. The release of these compounds indicates that LAB may convert vanillin precursors present in oak wood. In this work, the effect of commercial glycosidases on the released vanillin was firstly studied. This aldehyde is present in wood extracts in monoglycosidic forms where the major glycones are arabinose and xylose. Other aglycons released during MLF in barrels, syringaldehyde and whisky-lactones, can be considered as other sources of aroma. Secondly, strains selected with high activities toward glycoside substrates could hydrolyse vanillin glycoside precursors from oak wood with the same efficiency as commercial enzymes.     

Criteria to discriminate between wines aged in oak barrels and macerated with oak fragments

Wine aging in barrels is carried out to increase stability and achieve more complex aromas. In the last few years, however, the practice of macerating wine with small fragments of toasted oak (chips) has become increasingly common. This conveys similar tastes, aromas, and wooden notes to the wine as those obtained with traditional barrel aging, but much faster and at a fraction of the cost. Without proper regulation, this could lead to fraud if wine macerated with chips is offered as barrel aged wine.In the present study, 75 volatile compounds have been determined by applying gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (MS) and flame ionization detection (FID). It has been found that compounds directly related to the wood have greater discriminative power for telling apart wines aged in barrels from those macerated with oak fragments, but no single compound permits flawless classification. Therefore, we have studied the effect of the addition of oak fragments of different origins, different oak types, different formats and subjected to different toasting processes on a set of 231 samples from 6 Spanish Denominations of Origin wines (DOs), and compared them to those same wines aged in oak barrels. In light of the results, we have developed a set of criteria which allows distinguishing with high degree of accuracy between wines which have been aged in barrels and those macerated with oak fragments. The application of these criteria to different wines allows correct classification in over 90% of cases.     

Chemical and sensory changes in white wines fermented in the presence of oak chips

Summary Three samples of French oak and one sample of American oak were analyzed by different gas chromatographic-mass spectrometric (GC/MS) methods. Two methods of quantifying the main volatile compounds in oak wood were compared, namely, Direct Thermal Desorption coupled with GC/MS and analysis of mixtures of water-ethanol and wines that had been in contact with oak chips by extraction using an organic solvent followed by GC/MS analysis of the extract. The ratio of the two oak lactones released into the wine by the oak chips was the same as the ratio observed in original, untreated wood. These substances are of particular sensory importance in wines aged in oak wood barrels. Thus, the use of oak chips in white wines may be advantageous. The wines steeped with the oak chips improved their acceptability rating 2 points on a scale of 9.     

Accumulation of volatile oak compounds in a model wine stored in American and Limousin oak barrels

Changes in concentration of oak-derived volatile compounds extracted into a model wine stored in four American and four Limousin oak barrels were measured over a 93-week period. The accumulation curves for cis- and trans-oak lactone and eugenol were asymptotic and virtually identical in shape. Guaiacol was extracted more rapidly in the first six weeks, and then continued to accumulate in a near-linear fashion. 4-Methylguaiacol and maltol did not increase significantly in concentration beyond the first year of storage. The accumulation curve for vanillin was asymptotic during the first 32 weeks and linear thereafter, indicating more than one mechanism for generating this compound in oak. The extraction curve for cyclotene was linear throughout the maturation period and was consistent with a generation by slow acid hydrolysis of precursors formed during coopering.     

The use of oak chips during the ageing of a red wine in stainless steel tanks or used barrels: effect of the contact time and size of the oak chips on aroma compounds

Background and Aims:  This paper reports the influence of adding oak chips to a wine being aged either in stainless steel tanks or in used barrels on aroma compounds, comparing these wines with those aged in new barrels. Both the size of the oak chips and the length of contact time were considered.
Methods and Results:  Aroma compounds were analysed by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry to determine the differences in these compounds between the samples. The results showed that chips release aroma compounds into wine very rapidly, an effect that was clearly seen when they were added to the wines stored in tanks. The wines aged in new barrels continued to extract aroma compounds for a longer time, and higher concentrations were reached in these wines for most aroma compounds. Wines in used barrels with added oak chips behaved in an intermediate manner.
Conclusions:  Although overall quality is better in wines matured in new barrels, the use of oak chips could be considered a good choice for producing short-aged wines and for reusing used barrels under good sanitary conditions.
Significance of the Study:  The rapid spread of technique alternatives to oak ageing justifies studies to assess the influence of oak chips on the chemical characteristics of wines and to evaluate any differences from traditional oak ageing systems.     

白兰地陈酿促进剂的研制

以橡木为原料,采用酶解、光解和热解相结合的技术手段制备ＢＣＣ－１白兰地陈酿促进剂。应用结果表明,该产品用于白兰地陈酿,着色快,色泽好,木香突出,口味醇和。     

Techniques for improving or replacing ageing on lees of oak aged red wines: The effects on polysaccharides and the phenolic composition

Alternative techniques to the ageing on lees are being looked for in order to guarantee the improvements provided by this technique but eliminating its disadvantages. The aim of this work was to study the effect of ageing on lees and other alternative techniques (addition of β-glucanase enzymes to the lees; use of different yeast commercial preparations with or without β-glucanase enzymes; use of non-toasted oak chips; and ageing on lees together with micro-oxygenation) on the phenolic compounds, colour, proteins, polysaccharides and sensorial characteristics of red wines during vinification and ageing in oak barrels for 6 months on two consecutive vintages.