Load Distribution of Existing Solid Slab Bridges Based on Field Tests

The load-carrying capacity of existing slab bridges is commonly calculated based on the equivalent width recommended by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO). Interest in the field load testing of highway bridges has increased significantly in recent years. Load capacity of a bridge based on field testing is generally greater than that determined from standard rating calculations. The main parameters affecting the equivalent width were identified using the grillage analogy method. The results suggest that edge beam size should be considered in the equivalent width calculation. A simplified equation for the equivalent width is proposed for solid slab bridges with or without edge beams. The equivalent widths based on the AASHTO and LRFD cores was compared with those based on the field tests and analyses. The equivalent widths based on the grillage analogy and field tests are higher than those based on the AASHTO and LRFD codes, which indicates that the codes give a conservative estimate of the equivalent width. In the absence of field tests, the grillage analogy provides an accurate estimate for the equivalent width and bridge rating.     

Influence of Skew Angle on Reinforced Concrete Slab Bridges

The effect of a skew angle on simple-span reinforced concrete bridges is presented in this paper using the finite-element method. The parameters investigated in this analytical study were the span length, slab width, and skew angle. The finite-element analysis (FEA) results for skewed bridges were compared to the reference straight bridges as well as the American Association for State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) Standard Specifications and LRFD procedures. A total of 96 case study bridges were analyzed and subjected to AASHTO HS-20 design trucks positioned close to one edge on each bridge to produce maximum bending in the slab. The AASHTO Standard Specifications procedure gave similar results to the FEA maximum longitudinal bending moment for a skew angle less than or equal to 20°. As the skew angle increased, AASHTO Standard Specifications overestimated the maximum moment by 20% for 30°, 50% for 40°, and 100% for 50°. The AASHTO LRFD Design Specifications procedure overestimated the FEA maximum longitudinal bending moment. This overestimate increased with the increase in the skew angle, and decreased when the number of lanes increased; AASHTO LRFD overestimated the longitudinal bending moment by up to 40% for skew angles less than 30° and reaching 50% for 50°. The ratio between the three-dimensional FEA longitudinal moments for skewed and straight bridges was almost one for bridges with skew angle less than 20°. This ratio decreased to 0.75 for bridges with skew angles between 30 and 40°, and further decreased to 0.5 as the skew angle of the bridge increased to 50°. This decrease in the longitudinal moment ratio is offset by an increase of up to 75% in the maximum transverse moment ratio as the skew angle increases from 0 to 50°. The ratio between the FEA maximum live-load deflection for skewed bridges and straight bridges decreases in a pattern consistent with that of the longitudinal moment. This ratio decreased from one for skew angles less than 10° to 0.6 for skew angles between 40 and 50°.     

Long-Term Structural Health Monitoring of the San Ysidro Bridge

As part of the Lifecycle Innovative Financing Evaluation initiative, the San Ysidro Bridge along U.S. Route 550 will be monitored throughout a 10?year warranty period to determine changes in deflection, stiffness, and load-carrying capacity. This paper discusses an initial live-load test on the San Ysidro Bridge as well as a subsequent load test on a full-scale single lane test bridge. The two load tests in conjunction with finite element modeling were used to determine the load rating for both shear and moment of the San Ysidro Bridge. This load rating was then compared with the load rating using the distribution factors from the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) Standard and Load and Resistance Factor Design Specifications. According to both AASHTO specifications, the interior girder shear controlled the load rating of the San Ysidro Bridge. Using the finite element modeling scheme of frame and shell elements the interior girder moment was found to control the design. This load rating will be used as a baseline for comparison with future load ratings throughout the warranty period.     

Wheel Load Distribution in Simply Supported Concrete Slab Bridges

This paper presents the results of a parametric study related to the wheel load distribution in one-span, simply supported, multilane, reinforced concrete slab bridges. The finite-element method was used to investigate the effect of span length, slab width with and without shoulders, and wheel load conditions on typical bridges. A total of 112 highway bridge case studies were analyzed. It was assumed that the bridges were stand-alone structures carrying one-way traffic. The finite-element analysis (FEA) results of one-, two-, three-, and four-lane bridges are presented in combination with four typical span lengths. Bridges were loaded with highway design truck HS20 placed at critical locations in the longitudinal direction of each lane. Two possible transverse truck positions were considered: (1) Centered loading condition where design trucks are assumed to be traveling in the center of each lane; and (2) edge loading condition where the design trucks are placed close to one edge of the slab with the absolute minimum spacing between adjacent trucks. FEA results for bridges subjected to edge loading showed that the AASHTO standard specifications procedure overestimates the bending moment by 30% for one lane and a span length less than 7.5 m (25 ft) but agrees with FEA bending moments for longer spans. The AASHTO bending moment gave results similar to those of the FEA when considering two or more lanes and a span length less than 10.5 m (35 ft). However, as the span length increases, AASHTO underestimates the FEA bending moment by 15 to 30%. It was shown that the presence of shoulders on both sides of the bridge increases the load-carrying capacity of the bridge due to the increase in slab width. An extreme loading scenario was created by introducing a disabled truck near the edge in addition to design trucks in other lanes placed as close as possible to the disabled truck. For this extreme loading condition, AASHTO procedure gave similar results to the FEA longitudinal bending moments for spans up to 7.5 m (25 ft) and underestimated the FEA (20 to 40%) for spans between 9 and 16.5 m (30 and 55 ft), regardless of the number of lanes. The new AASHTO load and resistance factor design (LRFD) bridge design specifications overestimate the bending moments for normal traffic on bridges. However, LRFD procedure gives results similar to those of the FEA edge+truck loading condition. Furthermore, the FEA results showed that edge beams must be considered in multilane slab bridges with a span length ranging between 6 and 16.5 m (20 and 55 ft). This paper will assist bridge engineers in performing realistic designs of simply supported, multilane, reinforced concrete slab bridges as well as evaluating the load-carrying capacity of existing highway bridges.     

Development of Live-Load Distribution Factors for Glued-Laminated Timber Girder Bridges

This paper presents simple relationships for calculating live-load distribution factors for glued-laminated timber girder bridges with glued-laminated timber deck panels. Analytical models were developed using the Ansys 113 finite-element program, and the results were validated using recorded data from four in-service timber bridges. The effects of the bridge span length, the spacing between girders, and the bridge width on the distribution of the live load were investigated by using the validated models. The live-load distribution factors obtained from the field test and the analytical models were compared with those obtained using the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications2 live-load distribution relations. The comparison showed that the live-load distribution factors obtained by using the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications2 were conservative. For this reason, statistical methods were used to develop accurate relationships that can be used to calculate the live-load distribution factors in the design of glued-laminated girder bridges.     

Response of Slab Bridges Before, During, and After Repair

Continuous reinforced concrete slab bridges rely on reinforcing steel bars near the top of the deck over the piers to carry negative moment. Transfer of forces in these bars may be jeopardized by deterioration and repair procedures that involve variable depth removal of deteriorated concrete around the bars. Partial or full loss of continuity could overstress the bottom reinforcement. Truckload testing of three bridges with various levels of damage was conducted before, during, and after repair in an attempt to quantify the level of loss of continuity and to examine the effectiveness of repair in terms of increasing the load transfer and enhancing the overall stiffness. Test results show loss of stiffness during repair but increased stiffness after completion of repair. The continuity was found to be lost during repair, and the slab dead load positive moments may be increased by as much as 50%. After repair, the continuity was restored, and the live-load distribution was essentially unaltered. For the test bridges, the redistribution of dead-load moment to the positive-moment zones did not appreciably affect the overall bridge rating factor. The amount of moment redistribution may be controlled through planning of repair steps.     

Nondestructive Evaluation of the I-40 Bridge over the Rio Grande River

A nondestructive strength evaluation of the I-40 Bridge over the Rio Grande River in Albuquerque, N.M. was completed for the New Mexico Department of Transportation (NMDOT). The I-40 Bridge is a precast, prestressed concrete girder bridge located within 3?mi. of the “Big I” interchange carrying Interstates I-40 and I-25. Because of its location, the I-40 Bridge is subjected to large amounts of heavy truck traffic. The primary objective of the study reported herein was to determine a more accurate capacity rating for the I-40 Bridge and thus, reduce the number of overweight vehicle permit denials. To achieve this objective, a conventional rating analysis is first performed based on American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) guidelines. A diagnostic load test and a finite-element analysis are then completed. Details of the AASHTO rating analysis as well as the approach by which measured girder strains from the load test and finite-element results were considered in the capacity rating of the I-40 Bridge are discussed. Findings from the study confirmed that the capacity ratings of the I-40 Bridge could be safely increased by a factor of 1.7.     

Overload and Ultimate Load Behavior of Posttensioned Slab Bridge

A three-tenths-scale model of a posttensioned slab bridge is constructed in a laboratory and tested in the overload and ultimate load ranges. Dimensions of the slab are 16.9 × 5.33 × 0.23 m. In addition to uniformly distributed longitudinal posttensioning, a band of tendons is located in a narrow region directly above the supporting columns. A large array of strain gauges, linear variable differential transformers, and load cells serve to gather data for each loading configuration. Results are presented for a series of overloads that are placed on the slab in a variety of critical locations. Ultimate positive bending moment is imposed on one span and an ultimate negative moment is applied to the slab in the region of the supporting columns. Complementary nonlinear finite-element analyses of the overload and ultimate loadings are also presented. Results show that the posttensioned slab bridge supported a load-causing moment equivalent to 4.8 times the factored moment of an AASHTO MS 18 loading.     

Live-Load Distribution Factors for Prestressed Concrete, Spread Box-Girder Bridge

This study presents an evaluation of shear and moment live-load distribution factors for a new, prestressed concrete, spread box-girder bridge. The shear and moment distribution factors were measured under a live-load test using embedded fiber-optic sensors and used to verify a finite element model. The model was then loaded with the American Association of State Highway and Transportation (AASHTO) design truck. The resulting maximum girder distribution factors were compared to those calculated from both the AASHTO standard specifications and the AASHTO LRFD bridge design specifications. The LRFD specifications predictions of girder distribution factors were accurate to conservative when compared to the finite element model for all distribution factors. The standard specifications predictions of girder distribution factors ranged from highly unconservative to highly conservative when compared to the finite element model. For the study bridge, the LRFD specifications would result in a safe design, though exterior girders would be overdesigned. The standard Specifications, however, would result in an unsafe design for interior girders and overdesigned exterior girders.     

Examination of Level of Analysis Accuracy for Curved I-Girder Bridges through Comparisons to Field Data

To evaluate the accuracy of different levels of analysis used to predict horizontally curved steel I-girder bridge response, a field test was performed on a three-span structure. Collected strain data were reduced to determine girder vertical and bottom flange lateral bending moments. Experimental moments were compared to numerical moments obtained from three commonly employed levels of analysis. Level 1 analysis includes two manual calculation methods: a line girder analysis method described in the AASHTO Guide Specification for Horizontally Curved Highway Bridges, and the V-load method. Grillage models represent Level 2 and were created using three commercially available computer programs: SAP2000, MDX, and DESCUS. Level 3 consists of three-dimensional (3D) finite element models created using SAP2000 and the BSDI 3D system. Responses obtained from each level are compared and discussed for a single radial cross section of the structure, and the compared results involve truck loads and placement schemes that do not represent those used for bridge design. The field test and numerical data presented are used solely to determine the accuracy of each level of analysis for predicting structure response to a specific live load at a specific cross section. Results showed that Level 2 and Level 3 analyses predict girder vertical bending moment distributions more accurately than Level 1 analyses throughout the tested cross section. The comparisons indicate that Level 3 girder vertical bending moment distributions offered no appreciable increase in accuracy over Level 2 analyses. The study also indicates that both Level 1 and Level 3 analyses provide bottom flange lateral bending moment distributions that do not correlate well with field test results for the studied bridge cross section.     

Influence of Parapets and Aspect Ratio on Live-Load Distribution

Significant discrepancies in girder distribution factors have been observed between actual bridge field-testing results and AASHTO code predictions. One of the reasons for the discrepancies is that code methods fail to account for the existence of secondary members such as parapets in bridges. This research investigates the effects of parapets and bridge aspect ratio on live-load moment distribution for bridge girders. The influence on distribution factors of parapets with varying overhang lengths and of aspect ratio with varying roadway width is investigated. To study the effects of parapets and aspect ratios, 34 two-span continuous bridges with a 0° or a 45° skew angle and with varied structure parameters are analyzed using the finite element method. The distribution factors obtained from these analyses are compared with those from the AASHTO methods. The presence of parapets is shown to reduce distribution factors by as much as 36 and 13% for exterior and interior girders, respectively. The effect of parapets is slightly less for skewed bridges. Aspect ratio is shown to have very little effect on distribution factors until the ratio exceeds 1.8.     

Evaluation of Live-Load Lateral Flange Bending Distribution for a Horizontally Curved I-Girder Bridge

This paper focuses on levels of live-load lateral bending moment (bimoment) distribution in a horizontally curved steel I-girder bridge. Work centered primarily on the examination of (1) data from field testing of an in-service horizontally curved steel I-girder bridge and (2) results from a three-dimensional numerical model. Experimental data sets were used for calibration of the numerical model and the calibrated model was then used to examine the accuracy of lateral bending distribution factor equations presented in the 1993 Edition of the (AASHTO) Guide Specifications for Horizontally Curved Bridges. It is of interest to examine these equations for potential use in preliminary design even though they have been eliminated during recent AASHTO specification modifications that addressed curved bridge analysis, the 2005 Interims to the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications. In addition, they were developed using idealized computer models and small-scale laboratory testing with very few field tests of in-service full-scale curved steel bridges conducted to support or refute their use. Results from such experimental and numerical studies are presented and discussed herein.     

Truck Models for Improved Fatigue Life Predictions of Steel Bridges

A new fatigue load model has been developed based on weigh-in-motion (WIM) data collected from three different sites in Indiana. The recorded truck traffic was simulated over analytical bridge models to investigate moment range responses of bridge structures under truck traffic loadings. The bridge models included simple and two?equally continuous spans. Based on Miner’s hypothesis, fatigue damage accumulations were computed for details at various locations on the bridge models and compared with the damage predicted for the 240-kN (54-kip) American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) fatigue truck, a modified AASHTO fatigue truck with an equivalent effective gross weight, and other fatigue truck models. The results indicate that fatigue damage can be notably overestimated in short-span girders. Accordingly, two new fatigue trucks are developed in the present study. A new three-axle fatigue truck can be used to represent truck traffic on typical highways, while a four-axle fatigue truck can better represent truck traffic on heavy duty highways with a significant percentage of the fatigue damage dominated by eight- to 11-axle trucks.     

LRFD Orthotropic Plate Model for Live Load Moment in Filled Grid Decks

Due to the orthogonal elastic properties and significant two-way bending action, orthotropic plate theory may best be used to describe the behavior of concrete filled grid bridge decks. The current AASHTO LRFD specification employs an orthotropic plate model with a single patch load to predict live load moment in concrete filled grid bridge decks, which may not be conservative. This paper presents alternative equations to predict maximum moments, based on classical orthotropic plate theory, which include multiple patch loads, both the LRFD design truck and tandem load cases, and the two most common deck orientations. The predicted moments are verified through finite-element analyses.     

Design Recommendations for a FRP Bridge Deck Supported on Steel Superstructure

No appropriate provisions from either AASHTO Standard (2002) or AASHTO LRFD (2004) bridge design specifications are available for the design of fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP)-deck-on-steel-superstructure bridges. In this research, a parametric study using the finite-element method (FEM) is conducted to examine two design issues concerning the design of FRP-deck-on-steel-superstructure bridges, namely deck relative deflection and load distribution factor (LDF). Results show that the strip method specified in AASHTO LRFD specification as an approximate method of analysis, can also be applied to FRP decks as a practical method. However, different strip width equations have to be determined by either FEM or experimental methods for different types of FRP decks. In this study, one such equation has been derived for the Strongwell deck. In addition, both FEM results and experimental measurements show that the AASHTO LDF equations for glued laminated timber decks on steel stringers provide good estimations of LDF for FRP-deck-on-steel-superstructure bridges. Finally, it is found that the lever rule can be used as an appropriately conservative design method to predict the LDF of FRP-deck-on-steel-superstructure bridges.     

Probabilistic Characterization of Live Load Using Visual Counts and In-Service Strain Monitoring

It has been argued that the AASHTO LRFD design code for maximum live loads on highway bridges is overly conservative. In an attempt to determine the level of conservativeness, if any, the writers developed a methodology incorporating real-time visual data collection from traffic cameras coupled with structural strain response of girder bridges. Average daily truck traffic along with frequency of multiple presences (same lane as well as adjacent lanes) and lane-wise truck traffic distribution were estimated for a steel-girder highway bridge on I-95 in Delaware. These data compared well with predictions from a Poisson process based model developed for this study. Statistical properties of girder moments in single and multiple presence conditions were determined as well. In this particular example, the girder design moment on the 24.6?foot approach span according to AASHTO specifications was found to be about 3.5 times higher than that estimated from the in-service data.     

Secondary Prestressing Moments in Rehabilitated Posttensioned Bridges

Typical rehabilitation procedures for posttensioned slab bridges involve removing concrete from the top surface of the bridge, replacing corroded reinforcement, and resurfacing with new concrete. These permanently change primary and thus secondary prestressing moments. Continuous posttensioned bridges often rely on secondary prestressing moments to counteract dead and live load moments over interior supports and thus changes caused by rehabilitation impact serviceability and, particularly, ultimate limit states. An analysis procedure is derived for computing the changes in prestressing moments caused by rehabilitation. The impact of rehabilitation on a two-span continuous voided-slab bridge is evaluated considering rehabilitation schemes where both spans are rehabilitated simultaneously,?or where one span is completely rehabilitated before work commences on the other. Rehabilitation creates concentrated primary prestressing moments at the exterior supports and at interfaces between solid and voided regions that reduce or even reverse the secondary moment at the interior support. The two-span scheme virtually eliminates secondary prestressing moments and, contrary to intuition, the span-by-span scheme has a markedly greater impact.     

Field Investigation of a Sandwich Plate System Bridge Deck

This paper presents the results of a live-load test of the Shenley Bridge, the first bridge application of the sandwich plate system technology in North America. The investigation focused on the evaluation of in-service performance including lateral load distribution behavior and dynamic load allowance. Real-time midspan deflections and strain values were measured under both static and dynamic conditions and under various loading configurations to assess the in-service performance. Distribution factors were determined for interior and exterior girders subjected to single and paired truck loadings. In addition, dynamic load allowance was determined from a comparison of the bridge’s response under static conditions to the response under dynamic conditions. From a comparison of measured results to AASHTO LRFD, AASHTO standard, and CHBDC provisions, it was determined that the current provisions tend to produce conservative predictions for lateral load distribution, but can be unconservative for dynamic load allowance. As a result of the testing program containing a single field test, a finite-element model was also used for determination of lateral load distribution and yielded predictions similar to measured results. The results from the finite-element models were often less conservative than the code provisions.     

Demonstration of Use of High-Performance Lightweight Concrete in Bridge Superstructure in Virginia

The general objective of this research was the construction and evaluation of a bridge using high-performance lightweight concrete (HPLWC). The resulting bridge over the Chickahominy River near Richmond, Va., consists of 15 prestressed American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) Type IV girders made of HPLWC with a density of 1,920?kg/m3 and a minimum required 28-day compressive strength of 55?MPa. The bridge also has a lightweight concrete (LWC) deck with a density of 1,850?kg/m3 and a minimum required 28-day compressive strength of 30?MPa. This research study is chiefly concerned with investigating the effects of using lightweight concrete in prestressed girders on transfer length, development length, flexural strength, girder live-load distribution factor, and dynamic load allowance. Transfer length was determined to be 432?mm, or 33?db, for several girders at the time of prestress transfer. The development length was determined to be between 1,830 and 2,440?mm, while the flexural strength ranged from 11 to 30% higher than the AASHTO flexural capacity. The measured distribution factors and dynamic load allowance were smaller than the AASHTO standard and LRFD values.     

Shear Live-Load Distribution Factors for I-Girder Bridges

A full scale, single lane test bridge was used to evaluate a typical slab-on-girder bridge’s response to shear. The results of the shear load test provided the means to evaluate the level of detail for a finite element model that is required to accurately replicate the behavior of bridges subject to shear loads. This finite element modeling scheme was then used to evaluate more than 200 finite element bridge models. The bridge models investigated the effects of girder spacing, span length, overhang distance and skew angle on the shear live-load distribution factor. The finite element shear distribution factors were compared with those calculated according to the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials load and resistance factor design (AASHTO LRFD) specifications. It was found that the AASHTO LRFD procedure accurately predicted the shear distribution factor for changes in girder spacing and span length. However, the LRFD shear distribution factor for the exterior girder was found to be unconservative for certain overhang distances and overly conservative for the interior girder for higher skew angles. Alternative equations are provided for the single and multilane exterior girder correction factor.