Aerosol Aspiration Efficiency of Blunt and Thin-Walled Samplers at Different Wind Orientations

The measured aerosol aspiration efficiency of a thin-walled probe and 5 blunt (thick-walled) samplers was used to compare the aspiration efficiency calculated using the models developed by Belyaev and Levin (1972, 1974) and by Vincent and his colleague (1987, 1995). At 0° wind direction, the model developed by Belyaev and Levin agrees quite well with the experimental value for both the thin-walled probe and the blunt samplers. In this case, the blunt sampler body diameter ( D b ) was used to replace the inlet diameter ( D i ) for the calculation of the Stokes number (St). At 90° and 180° wind directions, the model developed by Vincent and his colleague agrees fairly well with the experimental value. This study shows that the model developed by Belyaev and Levin, at 0° wind direction, can be modified to calculate the aerosol aspiration efficiency by using personal samplers as area samplers. For the model developed by Vincent and his colleague, in addition to personal sampler application, at 90° and 180° wind directions their model can also be used to estimate the aspiration efficiency of area samplers.     

Particle Blow-off: A Source of Error in Blunt Dust Samplers

From blunt sampler theory it is possible to predict over-sampling for simple single-orifice, axisymmetric “total dust” samplers (such as the Casella type T13032) arising from particle blow-off from external surfaces. Wind tunnel experiments confirmed the predicted broad trends, revealing the errors in question to be as large as 50% for the sampling of dry dusts under some conditions of practical relevance. The results suggest that the laboratory evaluation of dust samplers in general ought to be carried out using test aerosols whose physical characteristics approximate as closely as possible those expected in practice.     

Impactor Apparatus for the Study of Particle Rebound: Relative Humidity and Capillary Forces

The effect of relative humidity (RH) on the adhesion of particles colliding with a hard surface was studied for submicron particles of liquid oleic acid, solid ammonium sulfate, and solid polystyrene latex (PSL). For this purpose, a three-arm impactor was designed and constructed. The three arms consisted of one impactor having an uncoated impaction plate (i.e., a rebound arm), one impactor having a viscous-liquid-coated impaction plate (i.e., a capture arm), and one impactor having no impaction plate (i.e., a null arm). The particle number concentrations downstream of each arm were measured by condensation particle counters (CPCs). Data were analyzed to obtain the particle rebound fraction. Use of ambient upstage pressure allowed measurements from 5 to 95% RH at the impaction plate. Particle rebound depended strongly on RH, even for non-hygroscopic PSL particles. The rebound fraction for PSL particles dropped monotonically from nearly unity at 50% RH to 0.4 at 95% RH. For ammonium sulfate, the rebound fraction dropped from nearly unity at 25% RH to 0.5 at 70% RH. The decreased rebound at higher RH was explained by the formation of a water meniscus. The resulting capillary forces inhibited particle detachment. A model, taking into account the impact kinetic energy compared to the contact adhesion energy arising from van der Waals and capillary forces, captured the observations well. The reduced rebound arising from increased adhesion at high RH, independent of particle water content, potentially confounds a recent assumption that non-rebounding atmospheric particles are liquid.

Copyright 2014 American Association for Aerosol Research     

Experimental Measurements and Numerical Calculations of Aspiration Efficiency for Cylindrical Thin-Walled Aerosol Samplers in Perfectly Calm Air

A large experimental study has been conducted to make definitive measurements of the aspiration efficiencies of idealized cylindrical thin-walled aerosol samplers in perfectly calm air, using a method that involved the direct visual observation of falling streams of particles of well-defined size for sampling under specific conditions of sampling flowrate and orientation (downwards facing and horizontal). These data augment an earlier set of experimental data for upwards-facing sampling, and those results are included again in this article for the sake of completeness. In addition to the experimental study, a numerical study was also carried out, first for the purpose of comparison with the experimental results in ranges where such results are available, and second for providing information in ranges where experiments could not be conducted satisfactorily. From this combined approach, a very comprehensive set of new data was generated. In general, the experimental and numerical results were seen to be in very good agreement for the ranges of conditions where data were obtained using both methods. For all cases it was shown in general that aspiration efficiency decreases with increasing Stokes' number (representing inertial forces) but increases with decreasing ratio of particle settling velocity to sampling inlet velocity (representing gravitational forces). From all the data it was seen that the detailed relationship between aspiration efficiency for the various sampler orientations is different for various particle inertia regimes. In the small St_c regime, aspiration efficiency is highest for upwards-facing sampling, with that for downwards-facing and horizontal sampling being about the same. In the intermediate St_c regime, aspiration efficiency for horizontal sampling is greater than for downwards facing, which in turn is greater than for upwards facing. In the large St_c regime, aspiration efficiency for upwards-facing sampling is greater than for horizontal, which in turn is greater than aspiration efficiency for downwards facing.     

Development of a Large Particle Aerosol Distribution System for Testing Manikin-Mounted Samplers

Personal samplers used to determine the inhalable fraction of workplace dust are tested while mounted on a manikin, which simulates a worker. To understand the mechanisms affecting the performance of such samplers, researchers must measure the airflow around the body where the samplers are mounted. Therefore, wind tunnel facilities to determine both airflow conditions around samplers and sampling efficiency are needed. A wind tunnel system was developed that was large enough to accommodate the top half of a life-sized manikin and employed a laser Doppler velocimeter for velocity measurements around the manikin. For generating particles up to 70 mu m, an aerosol generation system, using a two-dimensional scanning system to cover an extended area, was developed and tested. The generation system had carriages with linear bearings mounted on rod assemblies for scanning in the horizontal and vertical directions. Screw drives, powered by stepper motors under computer control, moved the carriages in a preprogrammed pattern. The generation system was characterized for its ability to generate uniform concentrations of aerosols over an extended area at wind speeds of 0.5 and 2 m/s and particle sizes of 7 and 70 mu m. Uniformity of concentration over the area studied, in the absence of the manikin, was 10% relative standard deviation (RSD) or better, except for 7 mu m particles at a wind speed of 0.5 m/s where some nonuniformity was observed. The uniformity under these conditions was improved by rearranging the distances between components in the wind tunnel.     

Particle-Substrate Collisions, Particle Rebound and Removal

Recent progress in particle capture and rebound and its effect on the adhesion force is reviewed in this paper. Particles rebound when the incident velocity is greater than a characteristic critical velocity. Lower impaction velocity particles experience elastic and plastic deformation. Recent models for particle rebound and capture are discussed and evaluated in terms of their restrictive assumptions and results. Recent experimental data of particle rebound and capture is also discussed, as is the hydrodynamic removal of captured particles. The removal of particles occurs when the applied hydrodynamic removal force overcomes the adhesion force. The effect of adhesion-induced deformation on the removal of particles is introduced and discussed.     

A Concentration Rebound Method for Measuring Particle Penetration and Deposition in the Indoor Environment

Continuous, size resolved particle measurements were performed in two houses in order to determine size-dependent particle penetration into and deposition in the indoor environment. The experiments consisted of three parts: (1) measurement of the particle loss rate following artificial elevation of indoor particle concentrations, (2) rapid reduction in particle concentration through induced ventilation by pressurization of the houses with HEPA-filtered air, and (3) measurement of the particle concentration rebound after house pressurization stopped. During the particle concentration decay period, when indoor concentrations are very high, losses due to deposition are large compared to gains due to particle infiltration. During the concentration rebound period, the opposite is true. The large variation in indoor concentration allows the effects of penetration and deposition losses to be separated by the transient, two-parameter model we employed to analyze the data. For the two houses studied, we found that as particles increased in diameter from 0.1 to 10 w m, penetration factors ranged from ～1 to 0.3 and deposition loss rates ranged from 0.1 and 5 h m 1 . The decline in penetration factor with increasing particle size was less pronounced in the house with the larger normalized leakage area.     

Simulation of Particle Size-Selective Air Samplers Placed in a Polydisperse Aerosol

The results of a numerical simulation of several air sampling instruments are presented. They are assumed to sample the same aerosol, with a log-normal particle-size distribution. Four instruments were studied: the 10-mm nylon cyclone, the MRE 113A gravimetric sampler, the CPM 3, and the CIP 10. The experimental data of particle collection efficiency were reduced by a model for each instrument. The model used combines two cumulative log-normal distribution functions, in order to have a good degree of flexibility necessary for representing the data of some devices that exhibit a maximum in efficiency (CPM 3, CIP 10). The concentrations “measured” by several air samplers were compared with each other; the differences were analyzed as functions of the aerosol parameters: mass median aerodynamic diameter and σ_g. The results that were obtained and those calculated from standard collection efficiencies, defining the conventional alveolar fraction of the aerosol, were also taken into account. This simulation method can be extended to any type of instrument and aerosol, and enables the prediction of the maximal deviations that could be observed between different instruments, or between one instrument and some reference standards.     

High-Volume Aerosol Filtration and Mitigation of Inertial Particle Rebound

The performance of electrostatically charged blown microfiber filter media was characterized for high-volume sampling applications. Pressure drop and aerosol collection efficiency were measured at air pressures of 55.2 and 88.7 kilopascals (kPa) and filter face velocities ranging from 2.5 to 11.25 meters per second (m/s). Particle penetration was significant for particles above 0.5 micrometers (μm) in aerodynamic diameter where the onset of particle rebound was observed as low as 200 nanometers (nm). Particle retention was enhanced by treating filters in an aqueous solution of glycerol. Adding this retention agent eliminated electrostatic capture mechanisms but mitigated inertial rebound. Untreated filters had higher nanoparticle collection efficiencies at lower filter face velocities where electrostatic capture was still significant. At higher filter face velocities, nanoparticle collection efficiencies were higher for treated filters where inertial capture was dominant and particle rebound was mitigated. Significant improvements to microparticle collection efficiency were observed for treated filters at all air flow conditions. At high air pressure, filter efficiency was greater than 95% for particles less than 5 μm. At low air pressure, performance enhancements were not as significant since air velocities were significantly higher through the fiber mat. Measured single fiber efficiencies were normalized by the theoretical single fiber efficiency to calculate adhesion probability. The small fiber diameter (1.77 μm) of this particular filter gave large Stokes numbers and interception parameters forcing the single fiber efficiency to its maximum theoretical value. The adhesion probability was plotted as a function of the ratio of Stokes and interception parameter similar to the works of others. Single fiber efficiencies for inertial nanoparticle collection were compared to existing theories and correlations.

Copyright 2014 American Association for Aerosol Research     

Experimental Study of Particle Losses Close to the Entry of Thin-Walled Sampling Probes at Varying Angles to the Wind

This article summarizes the results of an extensive experimental study of sampling losses in thin-walled probes at various values of velocity ratio R and the probe orientation with respect to the freestream. The purpose of this study was to gain insights into the complex interaction of various parameters that influence sampling losses and the consequent effect on the overall sampling efficiency. A 0.635 cm diameter sharp-edged tube was mounted in a small wind tunnel where the freestream velocity could be varied over a wide range of values. Polydispersed spherical glass beads were used as the test aerosol. The number concentration and the particle size distribution were measured using the aerodynamic particle sizer (APS 3310). The sampling efficiency was determined as a function of orientation for a range of particle sizes (or Stokes number). By using an existing model to predict the aspiration efficiency for thin-walled probes, the sampling losses could be isolated from the sampling efficiency. In this manner a new empirical model was developed to predict the losses as a complex function of Stokes number, sampler orientation, and velocity ratio. The losses appear to be influenced by particle inertia, impaction, gravitational settling in the boundary layer developing inside the thin-walled probe, and vena contracta or flow recirculation loss near the entry. It was evident from the results that these losses are strongly influenced by the Stokes number and sampler orientation. The losses also increased strongly with increasing value of velocity ratio for all orientations.     

膜分离颗粒体系过程的数学模型研究进展

膜分离技术是国际上最先进的分离技术之一,在颗粒体系的分离中有着广泛的应用。本文主要介绍了膜分离颗粒体系过程的传质机理模型研究进展,为膜技术的理论研究提供一定参考。     

Dichotomous Samplers Modified for Use with Electron Microscopy

Large sulfate artifacts up to 2 μm in diameter were observed by scanning electron microscopy for the fine particle fraction collected in dichotomous samplers. The artifacts were attributed to small liquid particles that piled up on the filter, coalesced, and later dried as larger particles. Such artifacts were eliminated when particles were collected in a modified dichotomous sampler in which 80% to 90% of the airflow was diverted from the fine fraction filter. This airflow diversion technique was used successfully with both virtual-impactor and tandem-filter types of dichotomous samplers.     

Comparison of Cleanroom Samplers for Inorganic Airborne Molecular Contaminants

Abstract

The performances of inorganic airborne molecular contaminants (AMCs) via silica gel tubes, impingers, and diffusion denuder sampler (DDS) were compared in a cleanroom. The results showed silica gel tubes were not applicable for cleanroom sampling due to high blanks. While with optimal sampling conditions both impingers and DDS have much better performances, of which DDS has the lowest detection limits of the method for HF, HCl, HNO₂, HNO₃, SO₂, and NH₃ gases to be 0.15, 0.11, 0.13, 0.03, 0.07, and 0.42 µg/m³, respectively. Results indicated no significant difference for the HF and SO₄ ^2? concentrations made by the DDS and impingers.     

粉煤灰轻集料混凝土回弹法测强曲线的研究

针对1400~1900密度等级和LC30~LC50强度等级的粉煤灰轻集料混凝土,进行了系统的回弹法测强曲线的研究。试验结果表明:JG J/T 23-2001《回弹法检测混凝土抗压强度技术规程》中统一测强曲线直接用以检测粉煤灰轻集料混凝土强度时,所得的强度换算值会偏高,导致结构安全系数降低.通过试验建立起了1400~1900密度等级、强度等级范围为LC30~LC50的粉煤灰轻集料混凝土回弹法测强专用曲线,其平均相对误差小于12.0%,相对标准误差小于14.0%,符合JG J/T 23-2001《回弹法检测混凝土抗压强度技术规程》对专用曲线的误差要求。     

Precision Evaluation of Size-Selective Aerosol Samplers

The importance of assessing exposure to atmospheric particles has recently increased, partially owing to epidemiological studies that have identified the negative health effects of particulate matter. Although size-selective sampling devices appear to be promising for measuring the degree of exposure to aerosol particles, the performance testing criteria of these devices may still be limited. Aerosol sampler performance can be measured in terms of bias and imprecision. The bias map, as a function of particle size distribution, is extensively used to evaluate sampling inaccuracy. However, procedures for constructing the imprecision map remain undetermined. The imprecision map should provide another useful indicator of sampler performance.

This study develops a semi-empirical model of imprecision under statistical premises. The binomial distribution assumption, rather than the conventional normal assumption of an ANOVA test, was made to model the imprecision of the sampler. Analytical results indicated that the size distribution of challenge aerosols, total particle number count, number of specimens, and number of replicates all affected the imprecision map. The “One Standard Error Shift,” similar to the “Mean Square Error,” combining the bias and imprecision maps was a novel and effective indicator of sampler performance.     

A Mathematical Model for Freeze-Drying

Based on the experiments on freeze-drying carrot and potato slabs, the effects of some parameters, such as heating temperature and pressure on the freeze-drying process are examined. A simple model of freeze-drying is established to predict drying time and the mass variations of materials during the drying. The experimental results agree well with those calculated by the model.     

水泥颗粒群粒度分布宽度的表征及其应用研究

用分形理论阐述了将水泥颗粒群粒度分布的分形维数作为定量表征其粒度分布宽度的正确性和可行性,测量了16种水泥颗粒群的粒度重量累积分布,在双对数条件下,水泥颗粒群的粒度重量累积含量与粒径之间呈直线关系,表明水泥颗粒群粒度分布结构具有分形特征,其分形维数可以定量表征水泥颗粒群粒度分布宽度;研究了水泥颗粒群粒度分布宽度与其空隙率的关系,结果表明,随着水泥颗粒群粒度分布宽度的增加,其空隙率减小,二者呈负相关。     

Overall Performance Evaluation of Aerosol Number Samplers

At present, there is neither an officially accepted size-selective fiber (aerosol number) sampler, nor are there established performance criteria. In this work, a prototype preclassifier (multihole impactor) was used to connect a conventional asbestos sampler so that the aerosol penetration test and particle counting process could be performed. The bias, as a function of particle size, was defined as the difference between the measured penetration curve and the target ISO/ACGIH/CEN respirable convention. The imprecision was the standard error with reference to the mean aerosol penetration curve. A statistical term, one standard error shift (OSES) was used in a previous study to combine the sampling bias and imprecision. The bias and imprecision could be for aerosol number, aerosol mass, or even surface area. In this work, an additional step was taken by introducing another statistical term, maximum sampling shift (MSS), to further combine the OSES with the counting imprecision. For the surrogate sampler tested, the particle counting imprecision increased with increasing particle diameter and decreased with increasing geometric standard deviation. The particle counting imprecision was comparable with the OSES, and the resultant MSS map was actually the summation of imprecision and OSES.