On the complexity of race.

Although a variety of studies have indicated that using statistical clustering techniques to examine genetic information may allow for geographically based groupings of individuals that tenuously map onto some conceptions of race (P??bo, 2001), these studies have also indicated that the amount of genetic variation within these groupings is significantly larger than the variation that exists between them (even after controlling for "unused" portions of the human genetic sequence). However, irrespective of these problems with the concept of race, the study of race holds a prominent place within the social and behavioral sciences. In their recent article on this topic, A. Smedley and B. D. Smedley (see record 2005-00117-003) acknowledge the problematic position of race at the genetic level. However, Smedley and Smedley do not explicitly relate the nature of the analyses often conducted to discern race on a genetic level (e.g., forms of cluster and profile analysis) to the discussion of race at the social level. Although the problems of interpreting self-categorizations into racial categories as "real" in the same way that a genetic code is "real" are obvious (and thoroughly discussed by Smedley & Smedley, 2005), what is often less recognized is the fact that the human genetic code allows for an amazing amount of plurality, whereas the racial categories used in most psychological research are unbelievably restricting. Forgetting the serious problems associated with attempting to match the phenomenology of human life with a series of acids, at a minimum psychologists should pay more attention to the fact that the measurement of social constructs should be conceived at a level of complexity that is at least partially commensurate with that of the human genome. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Race as Biology Is Fiction, Racism as a Social Problem Is Real: Anthropological and Historical Perspectives on the Social Construction of Race.

Racialized science seeks to explain human population differences in health, intelligence, education, and wealth as the consequence of immutable, biologically based differences between "racial" groups. Recent advances in the sequencing of the human genome and in an understanding of biological correlates of behavior have fueled racialized science, despite evidence that racial groups are not genetically discrete, reliably measured, or scientifically meaningful. Yet even these counterarguments often fail to take into account the origin and history of the idea of race. This article reviews the origins of the concept of race, placing the contemporary discussion of racial differences in an anthropological and historical context. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On the Categorization of Admired and Disliked Exemplars of Admired and Disliked Racial Groups.

The present work examined the influence of affective fit in the racial categorization process. Study 1 tested whether famous exemplars of stigmatized and nonstigmatized racial groups are categorized by race at differential rates, depending on whether they are admired or disliked. Using an inverted-face paradigm, Study 2 examined whether racial categorization accuracy differs for admired and disliked exemplars of these groups. Study 3 examined the influence of collective self-esteem on Whites' tendency to differentially categorize admired and disliked Black and White exemplars. Last, Study 4 replicated the pattern of results found in the previous studies for White participants, making use of unknown exemplars about whom participants learned either positive or negative information prior to categorizing them. Taken together, the results suggested that phenotypically irrelevant affective information regarding exemplars and their social group memberships influences the racial categorization process. Implications for prejudice and stereotyping are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Genes, Race, and Psychology in the Genome Era: An Introduction.

The mapping of the human genome has reawakened interest in the topic of race and genetics, especially the use of genetic technology to examine racial differences in complex outcomes such as health and intelligence. Advances in genomic research challenge psychology to address the myriad conceptual, methodological, and analytical issues associated with research on genetics and race. In addition, the field needs to understand the numerous social, ethical, legal, clinical, and policy implications of research in this arena. Addressing these issues should not only benefit psychology but could also serve to guide such thought in other fields, including molecular biology. The purpose of this special issue is to begin a discussion of this issue of race and genetics within the field of psychology. Several scholars who work in the fields of genetics, race, or related areas were invited to write (or had previously submitted) articles sharing their perspectives. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Kenneth B. Clark in the patterns of American culture.

Kenneth B. Clark is most well-remembered as the social scientist cited by the U.S. Supreme Court in footnote 11 of its decision in Brown v. Board of Education in 1954. His presence in that decision came to symbolize the role that social science could play in changing social policy and public attitudes. As an African American social scientist who was prominent during a time of great turmoil over racial issues in the United States, Clark also became a "participant-symbol" in America's discussion of race. Clark contributed to this discussion in the three books he wrote for the general public: Prejudice and Your Child (Clark, 1955), Dark Ghetto (Clark, 1965), and Pathos of Power (Clark, 1974). In this article, the author discusses how these works document Clark's growing pessimism about the prospects for improving race relations. In addition, Clark's place in contemporary American debates about Brown v. Board of Education and the persistence of racial equality is considered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Review of Discovering connections: A guide to the fun of bridging disability differences and Connecting kids: Exploring diversity together.

Reviews the books, Discovering connections: A guide to the fun bridging disability differences (1998) and Connecting kids: Exploring diversity together by Linda D. Hill (2001). These two books share a common theme: both provide practical solutions for bridging diversity gaps. The books are meant for anyone who wants to build inclusive groups of adults or children - professionals, volunteers, parents, people with disabilities, and family members and friends of people with disabilities. Discovering Connections provides a template to facilitate a group of adults from diverse backgrounds in the formation of an inclusive, cohesive group. There are 20 sessions organized around 10 themes, each with an armchair activity and a community connection idea. Each theme, in turn, is linked to two connecting skills. Connecting Kids is a "travel guide" for increasing diversity in children's groups. A set of 20 skills is presented, along with activity suggestions for cooperative games, creative activities, and nature experiences. These activities are designed to build social skills within a safe, inclusive environment and to help children respect and value individual differences. Those who are searching for practical suggestions and activities for creating inclusive groups of adults or children will likely find these books a useful addition to their resource library. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"On the application of within and between analysis: Are absence and affect really group-based phenomena?": Correction to Yammarino and Markham.

Reports an error in "On the application of within and between analysis: Are absence and affect really group-based phenomena" by Francis J. Yammarino and Steven E. Markham (Journal of Applied Psychology, 1992[Apr], Vol 77[2], 168-176). The exponents in Equations 4 and 5 are incorrect. The correct exponent in each equation is 1/2. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 1992-29454-001.) J. M. George (1990) examined personality, affect, and absence behavior as group-level phenomena. The recognition of level of analysis issues in that study was important, and the formulation of group-level hypotheses was interesting. However, the incomplete application of within and between analysis (WABA) led to suspect conclusions about group-based effects. The current study reexamined and reinterpreted George's results in light of an appropriate application of WABA. Personality, affect, and absence behavior appear to be based primarily on individual rather than group differences. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Development of the concept of truth-functional negation": Correction to Kim.

Reports an error in "Development of the concept of truth-functional negation" by Kyung Kim (Developmental Psychology, 1985[May], Vol 21[3], 462-472). In the article, several key words were omitted from the last sentence of the Method section on page 464, column 2, third paragraph. The corrected sentence is included in the erratum. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 1985-25108-001.) Studied the development of the concept of truth-functional negation in 2 experiments, using 36 English-speaking children (aged 3-6 yrs) and 10 Korean-speaking children (aged 4-5 yrs) as Ss. In Exp I, English-speaking Ss were given a sentence-variation task in which the following 4 sentence types were used to describe 36 pictures of common items: true affirmative, false affirmative, true negative (TN), and false negative. The results show that a majority of Ss under 5 yrs had difficulty with negative sentences, particularly TN sentences, indicating a lack of explicit understanding of truth-functional negation as defined in logic. In Exp II, a cross-linguistic replication of Exp I was attempted with Korean-speaking Ss. Despite some cross-linguistic differences in the negation system, the Korean-speaking Ss showed essentially the same pattern of results, suggesting that the development in question proceeds within the general limit set by the general cognitive development. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On improving the utilization of people with advanced degrees.

It is suggested that there is not an over production of behavioral science Ph.D's. but rather an under utilization. There apparently is a hesitancy in Canada to use Ph.D. social scientists. The onus is on both the business community and the university to foster a greater awareness of each other's problems and tasks. As a start, a conference entitled Symposium on Science Utilization was conducted where people from business, industry, government and the university discussed the problems of making greater use of behavioral scientists. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Graphing the order of the sexes: Constructing, recalling, interpreting, and putting the self in gender difference graphs.

Graphs seem to connote facts more than words or tables do. Consequently, they seem unlikely places to spot implicit sexism at work. Yet, in 6 studies (N = 741), women and men constructed (Study 1) and recalled (Study 2) gender difference graphs with men’s data first, and graphed powerful groups (Study 3) and individuals (Study 4) ahead of weaker ones. Participants who interpreted graph order as evidence of author “bias” inferred that the author graphed his or her own gender group first (Study 5). Women’s, but not men’s, preferences to graph men first were mitigated when participants graphed a difference between themselves and an opposite-sex friend prior to graphing gender differences (Study 6). Graph production and comprehension are affected by beliefs and suppositions about the groups represented in graphs to a greater degree than cognitive models of graph comprehension or realist models of scientific thinking have yet acknowledged. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On the ambiguity of concept use in commentaries.

In this article, we respond in general and specific terms to the commentaries written on our target article (Slaney & Racine, 2011). In so doing, we revisit the motivation for our initial article and attempt to clarify certain aspects of our argument. Given that we were taken by some to be trying to undermine the Representational Theory of Mind (RTM), we discuss RTM in some detail. We also discuss Wittgenstein's methods and their relevance to the issues raised in our article and in the commentaries. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Stereotypes as dominant responses: On the "social facilitation" of prejudice in anticipated public contexts.

This article challenges the highly intuitive assumption that prejudice should be less likely in public compared with private settings. It proposes that stereotypes may be conceptualized as a type of dominant response (C. L. Hull, 1943; R. B. Zajonc, 1965) whose expression may be enhanced in public settings, especially among individuals high in social anxiety. Support was found for this framework in an impression formation paradigm (Experiment 1) and in a speeded task designed to measure stereotypic errors in perceptual identification (Experiment 2). Use of the process dissociation procedure (B. K. Payne, L. L. Jacoby, & A. J. Lambert, in press) demonstrated that these effects were due to decreases in cognitive control rather than increases in stereotype accessibility. The findings highlight a heretofore unknown and ironic consequence of anticipated public settings: Warning people that others may be privy to their responses may actually increase prejudice among the very people who are most worried about doing the wrong thing in public. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Self-administration of alcohol before and after a public speaking challenge by individuals with social phobia": Correction to Abrams et al. (2002).

Reports an error in "Self-administration of alcohol before and after a public speaking challenge by individuals with social phobia." by Kenneth Abrams, Matt G. Kushner, Krista Lisdahl Medina and Amanda Voight (Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 2002[Jun], Vol 16[2], 121-128). On page 121, in the abstract, the penultimate sentence incorrectly reads, “As predicted, participants consumed more alcohol following the anxiety challenge than following the control task; however, the opposite pattern was evidenced for drinking following the 2 activities.” The sentence should read as follows: “As predicted, participants consumed more alcohol following the anxiety challenge than following the control task; however, the opposite pattern was evidenced for drinking preceding the 2 activities.” (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 2002-01321-005.) K. Abrams, M. Kushner, K. Medina, and A. Voight (2001) showed that alcohol attenuates social anxiety symptoms in socially phobic individuals. This article examines whether social anxiety symptoms can lead to increased alcohol use in this same population. Forty-four individuals with social phobia attended 2 laboratory sessions, spaced 1 week apart, in groups of approximately 10. Participants underwent a social anxiety challenge during 1 session and a control task during the other. Half of the sample self-administered alcohol immediately before, and half immediately after, these 2 activities. As predicted, participants consumed more alcohol following the anxiety challenge than following the control task; however, the opposite pattern was evidenced for drinking following the 2 activities. These findings add to an understanding of why social phobia and alcohol problems tend to co-occur. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

What's "up" with God? Vertical space as a representation of the divine.

"God" and "Devil" are abstract concepts often linked to vertical metaphors (e.g., "glory to God in the highest," "the Devil lives down in hell"). It is unknown, however, whether these metaphors simply aid communication or implicate a deeper mode of concept representation. In 6 experiments, the authors examined the extent to which the vertical dimension is used in noncommunication contexts involving God and the Devil. Experiment 1 established that people have implicit associations between God-Devil and up-down. Experiment 2 revealed that people encode God-related concepts faster if presented in a high (vs. low) vertical position. Experiment 3 found that people's memory for the vertical location of God- and Devil-like images showed a metaphor-consistent bias (up for God; down for Devil). Experiments 4, 5a, and 5b revealed that people rated strangers as more likely to believe in God when their images appeared in a high versus low vertical position, and this effect was independent of inferences related to power and likability. These robust results reveal that vertical perceptions are invoked when people access divinity-related cognitions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On the concept of concept.

This commentary is in two parts: 1) a short review of problems with representational theories of mind, and 2) a critique and diagnosis of what I claim are fundamental problems with Wittgensteinian notions of grammatical analysis. These problems turn on an incomplete characterization of normativity in Wittgenstein's (and others') work. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Reasoning about the disclosure of success and failure to friends among children in the United States and China": Correction to Heyman et al. (2008).

Reports an error in "Reasoning about the disclosure of success and failure to friends among children in the United States and China" by Gail D. Heyman, Genyue Fu and Kang Lee (Developmental Psychology, 2008[Jul], Vol 44[4], 908-918). An error was introduced in the production process. The heading for the bottom half of Table 1 should be "China," not "Canada." (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 2008-08592-002.) Children's reasoning about individuals' willingness to disclose their successes and failures was investigated among 194 6- to 11-year-olds in the United States and China. In Study 1, participants showed a valence-matching effect, in which they predicted that individuals would be more likely to disclose their performance to an audience of friends if the friends' level of achievement was similar rather than dissimilar. This effect was weaker among children from China, who were more likely to justify their responses with reference to the implications for learning together or improving future performance. Results of Study 2 suggest that for children from the United States, the disclosure of successful performance to a friend who has performed poorly is seen as implicitly conveying the message "I'm better than you," whereas for children from China the message is "I can help you to do better." Results are interpreted with reference to cultural values and expectations about helping others to learn. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Maternal Emotional Reactions to the Premature Infant in the Context of the Family": Erratum.

Reports an error in "Maternal emotional reactions to the premature infant in the context of the family" by Robert M. Hodapp and Kathryn T. Young (Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science Revue canadienne des Sciences du comportement, 1992[Jan], Vol 24[1], 29-40). The authors of the article should be listed as Robert M. Hodapp, Yale University, Kathryn T. Young, Yale University, Marie Algieri, Hospital for Sick Children, and Klaus Minde, Montreal Children's Hospital. The two last names were inadvertendly omitted. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 1992-27071-001.) Examined maternal emotional reactions to the birth and early development of premature infants and whether such reactions are influenced by specific social support variables. 22 mothers of premature infants (aged 26–31 wks) were rated on 13 general psychological characteristics common to "maternal mourning reactions" of mothers of handicapped and at-risk children. Ss experienced relatively brief adverse reactions. The proposed 3-stage model of maternal mourning (i.e., shock; emotional disorganization; emotional organization) did not appear to characterize this sample. Ss with supportive spouses and close friends experienced less severe emotional reactions, as did Ss whose husbands were looking forward to becoming fathers. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"The reception of my Freud-critique in the psychoanalytic literature": Response to Professor Adolf Grünbaum.

The present is a response to Adolf Grünbaum's outrage (see record 2007-10890-018) at my article (see record 2006-05420-005), and others. Grünbaum challenged my articles with a mixture of ad hominem and ad rem arguments claiming that I misrepresented his ideas about Freud and psychoanalysis. In this response, I propose to disentangle these two classes of arguments and point out factual, textual, methodological, and theoretical errors in Grünbaum's various arguments. I review a number of Freud's passages from his seminal contributions to psychoanalytic method: Studies on Hysteria and The Interpretation of Dreams, and other writings to show that Freud himself did not make explicit another cardinal distinction: that between what he operationally formulated as the psychoanalytic method, procedure, or technique versus the various etiological theories of psychological, that is, emotional disorders. Neither was this distinction honored by Grünbaum, and that is his cardinal error. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Perceived social support among college students: Three studies of the psychometric characteristics and counseling uses of the Social Support Inventory": Correction to Brown, Brady, Lent, Wolfert, and Hall.

Reports an error in "Perceived social support among college students: Three studies of the psychometric characteristics and counseling uses of the Social Support Inventory" by Steven D. Brown, Theresa Brady, Robert W. Lent, Jenny Wolfert and Sheila Hall (Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1987[Jul], Vol 34[3], 337-354). In Table 5, the reliable change (RC) values for Clients 1-7 on the UCLA Loneliness Scale and the College Student Satisfaction Scale were incorrect. The corrected values are presented in the erratum. In addition, a note should be added to Table 5 that reads: "Posttreatment scores used in the calculation of RC are means obtained from the sum of posttreatment and follow-up scores." (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 1987-32914-001.) Perceived social support has been shown to relate to psychological distress and well-being. However, measurement of the construct has been limited by a failure to embed perceived support in a body of psychological theory that would suggest how perceived support is produced and modified. In three studies we assessed the psychometric characteristics and counseling uses of a theory-derived measure of perceived social support, the Social Support Inventory (SSI). Results of the first study indicated that the SSI possessed excellent internal consistency reliability and concurrent validity, and it performed in theoretically predicted ways in a series of construct validity analyses. Results of the second study suggested that the SSI may not be influenced by mood state or demand characteristics. The third study concerned a counseling intervention developed from the SSI's theoretical base. Reported outcomes are from the first 7 consecutive college student clients exposed to the intervention for difficulties in their social transition to college. We also describe the person-environment fit theory from which the SSI was derived and discuss future conceptual and research needs on the theory, instrument, and intervention. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Ten years of research on the false-consensus effect: An empirical and theoretical review": Correction to Marks and Miller.

Reports an error in "Ten years of research on the false-consensus effect: An empirical and theoretical review" by Gary Marks and Norman Miller (Psychological Bulletin, 1987[Jul], Vol 102[1], 72-90). The block quotation on page 73 should be attributed to Crocker (1981). The two sentences immediately preceding this quotation should read: "Friendship groups typically exhibit a high degree of internal similarity with respect to members' beliefs, attitudes, values, and interests. Crocker (1981) reported the following:". (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 1987-31255-001.) Ten years of research on the false-consensus effect (Ross, Greene, & House, 1977) and related biases in social perception (e.g., assumed similarity and overestimation of consensus) are examined in the light of four general theoretical perspectives: (a) selective exposure and cognitive availability, (b) salience and focus of attention, (c) logical information processing, and (d) motivational processes. The findings indicate that these biases are influenced by a host of variables and that no single explanation can account for the range of data. Instead, each theoretical perspective appears to have its own domain of application, albeit with some degree of overlap into other domains. The data further suggest that two or more specific mechanisms may operate simultaneously or in concert to produce assumed similarity and false-consensus effects. Discussion focuses on identifying the process or sets of processes operating in specific situations. We identify several gaps in the knowledge of mediating relationships and suggest directions for future research. We also discuss issues related to definition and measurement. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)