The Thermal Conductivity, Thermal Diffusivity, and Heat Capacity of Gaseous Argon

This paper presents new absolute measurements for the thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity of gaseous argon obtained with a transient hot-wire instrument. Six isotherms were measured in the supercritical dense gas at temperatures between 296 and 423 K and pressures up to 61 MPa. A new analysis for the influence of temperature-dependent properties and residual bridge unbalance is used to obtain the thermal conductivity with an uncertainty of less than 1% and the thermal diffusivity with an uncertainty of less than 4%. Isobaric heat capacity results were derived from measured values of thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity using a density calculated from an equation of state. The heat capacities presented here have a nominal uncertainty of 4% and demonstrate that this property can be obtained successfully with the transient hot wire technique over a wide range of fluid states. The technique will be useful when applied to fluids which lack specific heat data.     

The Thermal Conductivity, Thermal Diffusivity, and Specific Heat of Liquid n-Pentane

The thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity of liquid n-pentane have been measured over the temperature range from 293 to 428 K at pressures from 3.5 to 35 MPa using a transient hot-wire instrument. It was determined that the results were influenced by fluid thermal radiation, and a new expression for this effect is presented. The uncertainty of the experimental results is estimated to be better than ±0.5% for thermal conductivity and ±2% for thermal diffusivity. The results, corrected for fluid thermal radiation, are correlated as functions of temperature and density with a maximum uncertainty of ±2% for thermal conductivity and ±4% for thermal diffusivity. Derived values of the isobaric specific heat are also given.     

The Thermal Conductivity, Thermal Diffusivity and Isobaric Heat Capacity of Toluene and Argon

This paper presents absolute measurements for the thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity of toluene obtained with a transient hot-wire instrument employing coated wires over the density interval of 735 to 870 kgm^–3. A new expression for the influence of the wire coating is presented, and an examination of the importance of a nonuniform wire radius is verified with measurements on argon from 296 to 323 K at pressures to 61 MPa. Four isotherms were measured in toluene between 296 and 423 K at pressures to 35 MPa. The measurements have an uncertainty of less than ±0.5% for thermal conductivity and ±2% for thermal diffusivity. Isobaric heat capacity results, derived from the measured values of thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity, using a density determined from an equation of state, have an uncertainty of ±3% after taking into account the uncertainty of the applied equation of state. The measurements demonstrate that isobaric specific heat determinations can be obtained successfully with the transient hot wire technique over a wide range of fluid states provided density values are available.     

Thermal Conductivity of Molten Lead-Free Solders

The paper reports measurements of the thermal conductivity of a number of molten solders for the electronics industry that are part of a group of materials designed to be free of the toxic problems associated with lead-based solders. The measurements have been carried out with a transient hot-wire instrument originally designed for the measurement of the thermal conductivity of pure molten metals. In the application reported here the instrument has been used largely unchanged but an improved finite-element code has been used for the analysis of the raw data so as to yield the thermal conductivity of the molten solders. The measurements extend from the melting point of the solder up to 625 K. The uncertainty in the thermal conductivity measurements is estimated to be no larger than 3%.Paper presented at the Seventh Asian Thermophysical Properties Conference, August 23–28, 2004, Hefei and Huangshan, Anhui, P. R. China     

A High-Temperature Transient Hot-Wire Thermal Conductivity Apparatus for Fluids

A new apparatus for measuring both the thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity of fluids at temperatures from 220 to 775 K at pressures to 70 MPa is described. The instrument is based on the step-power-forced transient hot-wire technique. Two hot wires are arranged in different arms of a Wheatstone bridge such that the response of the shorter compensating wire is subtracted from the response of the primary wire. Both hot wires are 12.7 µm diameter platinum wire and are simultaneously used as electrical heat sources and as resistance thermometers. A microcomputer controls bridge nulling, applies the power pulse, monitors the bridge response, and stores the results. Performance of the instrument was verified with measurements on liquid toluene as well as argon and nitrogen gas. In particular, new data for the thermal conductivity of liquid toluene near the saturation line, between 298 and 550 K, are presented. These new data can be used to illustrate the importance of radiative heat transfer in transient hot-wire measurements. Thermal conductivity data for liquid toluene, which are corrected for radiation, are reported. The precision of the thermal conductivity data is ± 0.3% and the accuracy is about ±1%. The accuracy of the thermal diffusivity data is about ± 5%. From the measured thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity, we can calculate the specific heat, C_p, of the fluid, provided that the density is measured, or available through an equation of state.     

The thermal conductivity and heat capacity of gaseous argon

This paper presents new absolute measurements of the thermal conductivity and of the thermal diffusivity of gaseous argon obtained with a transient hot-wire instrument. We measured seven isotherms in the supercritical dense gas at temperatures between 157 and 324 K with pressures up to 70 MPa and densities up to 32 mol · L^–1 and five isotherms in the vapor at temperatures between 103 and 142 K with pressures up to the saturation vapor pressure. The instrument is capable of measuring the thermal conductivity with an accuracy better than 1% and thermal diffusivity with an accuracy better than 5%. Heat capacity results were determined from the simultaneously measured values of thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity and from the density calculated from measured values of pressure and temperature from an equation of state. The heat capacities presented in this paper, with a nominal accuracy of 5%, prove that heat capacity data can be obtained successfully with the transient hot wire technique over a wide range of fluid states. The technique will be invaluable when applied to fluids which lack specific heat data or an adequate equation of state.     

Thermal Conductivity of Toluene+Cyclopentane Mixtures: Measurements and Prediction

New measurements of the thermal conductivity of toluene, cyclopentane, and a binary mixture of 60 wt% toluene are presented. The measurements cover the temperature range from 235 to 345 K and from the saturation line up to 20 MPa pressure. The measurements were performed with a transient hot-wire instrument. The uncertainty of the measurements is estimated to be ±0.5%. The present results are employed to examine the predictive power of a theoretically based scheme for the calculation of the transport properties of mixtures.     

无机纳米流体的热物性及其测试新方法的研究

研究了一种能同时测量纳米流体导热系数λ、导温系数α和比热C_p的非稳态多功能测试新方法,它结合了单丝法准确测量导热系数和双丝法准确测量导温系数的优点.对几种液体的导热系数和导温系数的实测值与TPRC推荐值进行比较,最大偏差分别为-0.4％和-2.7％.导热系数和导温系数测试均方根误差分别<±0.5％和±3％.并用此法测量了纳米Al₂O₃流体和纳米TiO₂流体的热物性参数,结果表明在流体中加入无机纳米粉体后其入和α较分散介质均有明显提高,加和原理不完全适用于纳米流体比热计算.     

A New Instrument for the Measurement of the Thermal Conductivity of Fluids

The transient hot-wire technique is at present the best technique for obtaining standard reference data for the thermal conductivity of fluids. It is an absolute technique, with a working equation and a complete set of corrections reflecting departures from the ideal model, where the principal variables are measured with a high degree of accuracy. It is possible to evaluate the uncertainty of the experimental thermal conductivity data obtained using the best metrological recommendations. The liquids proposed by IUPAC (toluene, benzene, and water) as primary standards were measured with this technique with an uncertainty of 1% or better (95% confidence level). Pure gases and gaseous mixtures were also extensively studied. It is the purpose of this paper to report on a new instrument, developed in Lisbon, for the measurement of the thermal conductivity of gases and liquids, covering temperature and pressure ranges that contain the near-critical region. The performance of the instrument for pressures up to 15 MPa was tested with gaseous argon, and measurements on dry air (Synthetic gas mixture, with molar composition certified by Linde AG, Wiesbaden, Germany, Ar – 0.00920; O₂ – 0.20966; N₂ – 0.78114), from room temperature to 473 K and pressures up to 10 MPa are also reported. The estimated uncertainty is 1%.M. L. V. Ramires: DeceasedPaper presented at the Seventeenth European Conference on Thermophysical Properties, September 5–8, 2005, Bratislava, Slovak Republic.     

Absolute measurements of the thermal conductivity of mixtures of alkene-glycols with water

New absolute measurements of the thermal conductivity of ethylene and propylene glycol and their mixtures with water are presented. The measurements were performed in a tantalum-type transient hot-wire instrument at atmospheric pressure, in the temperature range 295–360 K. The overall uncertainty of the reported values is estimated to be less than ±0.5%, an estimate confirmed by measurements of the thermal conductivity of water. The mixtures with water studied have compositions of 25, 50, and 75%, by weight. A recently proposed semiempirical scheme for the prediction of the thermal conductivity of pure liquids is extended to allow the prediction of the thermal conductivity of these mixtures from the pure components, as a function of both composition and temperature.     

Measurements of the thermal conductivity of R11 and R12 in the temperature range 250–340 K at pressures up to 30 MPa

This paper reports new, absolute measurements of the thermal conductivity of liquid refrigerants R11 and R12 in the temperature range 250–340 K at pressures from saturation up to 30 MPa. The measurements, performed in a new transient hot-wire instrument employing two anodized tantalum wires, have an estimated uncertainty of ±0.5%. Measurements of the thermal conductivity of toluene in the temperature range 250–340 K at pressures up to 30 MPa are also reported.     

Thermal Conductivity of HFC-32, HFC-125, and HFC-134a in the Solid Phase

Measurements of the thermal conductivity of HFC-32, HFC-125, and HFC-134a were carried out for the first time in both solid and liquid phases at the saturation pressure at room temperature and in the temperature ranges from 120 to 263, from 140 to 213, and from 130 to 295 K, respectively. A transient hot-wire instrument using one bare platinum wire was employed for measurements, with an uncertainty of less than ±2%. The experimental results demonstrated that the thermal conductivity of HFC-32, HFC-125, and HFC-134a in the solid phase showed a positive temperature dependence. For HFC-32 and HFC-125, there were big jumps between the solid and the liquid thermal conductivity at the melting point. But for HFC-134a, the solid and liquid thermal conductivity at the melting point is almost-continuous.     

Experimental determination of the thermal diffusivity of molten alkali halides by the forced Rayleigh scattering method. II. Molten NaBr,KBr, RbBr,and CsBr

This is a companion to an earlier paper (on molten alkali metal chlorides) which gives experimental results for the thermal diffusivity of four molten alkali metal bromides: NaBr, KBr, RbBr, and CsBr. The measurements were performed with a forced Rayleigh scattering instrument at temperatures up to 1326 K. The overall uncertainty in the measured thermal diffusivity is estimated to be ±3 to ±11%, depending on the measured salts. The results converted to thermal conductivity show one of the smallest values among other earlier experimental data obtained mainly by the steady-state methods. It is also found that the temperature dependence of the thermal conductivity is weakly negative.     

Measurements of the thermal conductivity of R22, R123, and R134a in the temperature range 250–340 K at pressures up to 30 MPa

This paper reports new, absolute measurements of the thermal conductivity of the liquid refrigerants R22, R123, and R134a in the temperature range 250–340 K at pressures from saturation up to 30 MPa. The measurements, performed in a transient hot-wire instrument employing two anodized tantalum wires as the heat source, have an estimated uncertainty of ±0.5%. A recently developed semiempirical scheme is employed to correlate successfully the thermal conductivity and the viscosity of these refrigerants, as a function of their density.     

A Novel Instrument for the Measurement of the Thermal Conductivity of Molten Metals. Part II: Measurements

New measurements of the thermal conductivity of molten mercury, gallium, tin, and indium are reported up to 750 K. The measurements are performed in a novel transient hot-wire instrument described elsewhere. The present experimental technique overcomes problems of convection, and it is shown that it operates in an absolute way in accord with a theoretical model. The uncertainty of the thermal conductivity results is estimated to be ± 2%, which is superior to that achieved in most earlier work. The low uncertainty of the present experimental results has allowed us to test the only significant theory for the thermal conductivity of molten metals, which relates this property to the electrical conductivity. The pattern of results among the four metals indicates that further theoretical developments would be warranted.     

Thermal Conductivity of Saturated Liquid Toluene by Use of Anodized Tantalum Hot Wires at High Temperatures

Absolute measurements of the thermal conductivity of a distilled and dried sample of toluene near saturation are reported. The transient hot-wire technique with an anodized tantalum hot wire was used. The thermal conductivities were measured at temperatures from 300 K to 550 K at different applied power levels to assess the uncertainty with which it is possible to measure liquid thermal conductivity over wide temperature ranges with an anodized tantalum wire. The wire resistance versus temperature was monitored throughout the measurements to study the stability of the wire calibration. The relative expanded uncertainty of the resulting data at the level of 2 standard deviations (coverage factor k = 2) is 0.5 % up to 480 K and 1.5 % between 480 K and 550 K, and is limited by drift in the wire calibration at temperatures above 450 K. Significant thermal-radiation effects are observed at the highest temperatures. The radiation-corrected results agree well with data from transient hot-wire measurements with bare platinum hot wires as well as with data derived from thermal diffusivities obtained using light-scattering techniques.     

Application of the Multi-Current Transient Hot-Wire Technique for Absolute Measurements of the Thermal Conductivity of Glycols

Experimental measurements of the thermal conductivity of mono-, di-, tri-, and tetra-ethylene glycol are presented. The experiments were carried out at atmospheric pressure and at temperatures ranging from 25 to 65°C. The multi-current transient hot-wire technique has been used with a platinum wire of 25 μm diameter; the electrical current varied from 25 to 75 mA. For all studied glycols, it was found that the thermal conductivity increases with temperature and decreases with the glycol molar mass. The random uncertainty of the reported experimental thermal conductivity data is less than 0.9%. The estimated systematic errors affecting the obtained data are at most 2%. The values obtained in this study were compared with previously published results for the four glycols, finding deviations of the order of 2%.     

Absolute Steady-State Thermal Conductivity Measurements by Use of a Transient Hot-Wire System

A transient hot-wire apparatus was used to measure the thermal conductivity of argon with both steady-state and transient methods. The effects of wire diameter, eccentricity of the wire in the cavity, axial conduction, and natural convection were accounted for in the analysis of the steady-state measurements. Based on measurements on argon, the relative uncertainty at the 95 % level of confidence of the new steady-state measurements is 2 % at low densities. Using the same hot wires, the relative uncertainty of the transient measurements is 1 % at the 95 % level of confidence. This is the first report of thermal conductivity measurements made by two different methods in the same apparatus. The steady-state method is shown to complement normal transient measurements at low densities, particularly for fluids where the thermophysical properties at low densities are not known with high accuracy.     

The thermal conductivity and viscosity of benzene

New absolute measurements of the thermal conductivity of liquid benzene are reported. The measurements have been carried out in the temperature range 295–340 K, at atmospheric pressure, in a transient hot-wire instrument. The accuracy of the measurements is estimated to be ±0.5%. The measurements presented in this paper have been used, in conjunction with other high-pressure measurements of thermal conductivity and viscosity, to develop a consistent theoretically based correlation for the prediction of these properties. The proposed scheme permits the density dependence of the thermal conductivity and viscosity of benzene, for temperatures between 295 and 375 K and pressures up to 400 MPa, to be represented successfully by two equations containing just two parameters characteristic of the fluid at each temperature.     

New Transient Hot-Bridge Sensor to Measure Thermal Conductivity, Thermal Diffusivity, and Volumetric Specific Heat

A high sensitivity thermoelectric sensor to measure all relevant thermal transport properties has been developed. This so-called transient hot bridge (THB) decidedly improves the state of the art for transient measurements of the thermal conductivity, thermal diffusivity, and volumetric specific heat. The new sensor is realized as a printed circuit foil of nickel between two polyimide sheets. Its layout consists of four identical strips arranged in parallel and connected for an equal-ratio Wheatstone bridge. At uniform temperature, the bridge is inherently balanced, i.e., no nulling is required prior to a run. An electric current makes the unequally spaced strips establish an inhomogeneous temperature profile that turns the bridge into an unbalanced condition. From then on, the THB produces an offset-free output signal of high sensitivity as a measure of the properties mentioned of the surrounding specimen. The signal is virtually free of thermal emf’s because no external bridge resistors are needed. Each single strip is meander-shaped to give it a higher resistivity and, additionally, segmented into a long and short part to compensate for the end effect. The THB closely meets the specific requirements of industry and research institutes for an easy to handle and accurate low cost sensor. As the key component of an instrument, it allows rapid thermal-conductivity measurements on solid and fluid specimens from 0.02 to 100 W· m⁻¹·K⁻¹ at temperatures up to 250°C. Measurements on some reference materials and thermal insulations are presented. These verify the preliminary estimated uncertainty of 2% in thermal conductivity.