Bacterial indicators of faecal pollution in the waters of the El-Kabir River and Akkar watershed in Syria and Lebanon

Water samples for bacterial analyses were taken, when possible, at 41 sites in Lebanon and Syria in the El‐Kabir River watershed. Samples were analysed for total coliform (TC), faecal coliform (FC) and faecal streptococcus. The Lebanese samples also were analysed for the presence of sulphate‐reducing bacteria. The TC and FC concentrations were extremely high throughout the watershed, rendering the water unfit for any human uses. The origin of the bacteria is the untreated sewage waste from the numerous settlements situated throughout the watershed. This primary origin is supported by high ratios of FC/faecal streptococcus, although impacts from animal wastes also were observed. The bacterial levels were higher in summer than in winter, indicating a high winter river flow that dilutes a relatively constant source of human sewage discharged to the system. Spring waters also exhibited elevated levels of bacteria, implicating surface land use and waste disposal practices upstream of the springs. The data clearly shows that human health is at a high risk and that strategies for improving water quality and protecting spring water must be expeditiously implemented.     

Hydrological and watershed characteristics of the El-Kabir River, North Lebanon

The El‐Kabir River watershed is the largest in western Lebanon and is shared between Lebanon and Syria. The river forms most of the northern boundary of Lebanon with Syria, being characterized by water flow throughout the year. The characteristics of the river and its variable hydrologic properties are the result of abrupt changes in land physiography. Until recently, data on Lebanese rivers was inadequate, especially for rivers shared with other countries. The El‐Kabir River watershed typifies this situation, particularly when the river has undergone many changes, including water pollution and declining discharge because of changing climate and increased pollution. This study was implemented in the context of a large investigation of the watershed which was funded by the International Development Research Council, Canada, for the purpose of improving the baseline data and knowledge required to effectively manage this important resource. Within the water cycle, ≈ 250 × 10⁶ m³ of precipitation falls on the Lebanese side. Of this volume, ≈ 50% is lost as evaporation and transpiration, while 5–50% of the remainder infiltrates to ground water, with the residual becoming land run‐off. An obvious decline of ≈ 40% of the total river discharge of the river has occurred over the last 50 years. It can be explained by climate change and by water extraction associated with dramatic increases in population and associated land uses. The hydraulic configuration and characteristics of the river have two major orientations; namely, NE–SW and E–W. These orientations are the product of geological structure and lithologies. Furthermore, each has different hydrologic properties related to watershed size, elevation, slope, catchment shape and orientation, although both orientations are directly inter‐related.     

A physicochemical characterization of the waters of the El-Kabir River and major tributaries in Syria and Lebanon

Thirty‐nine sampling sites were selected in the El‐Kabir River watershed, including 18 in Syria and 21 in Lebanon. Three major tributaries, the Nahr al‐Arous and the Nahr Nasrive in Syria, and the Chadra River in Lebanon, were included in the site selection, together with Wadi el‐Aatchane and Wadi Khaled. Instrumental measurements for temperature, specific conductivity (Sp. Cond.), dissolved oxygen (DO) and pH were taken directly in the water at each site visit. Measurements were taken in both countries in May 2001, January, April and August 2002, and there was an additional sampling in Lebanon during September 2001. The interpretation of the data led to some specific conclusions on the conditions in the watershed. The waters of the El‐Kabir River are derived almost exclusively from ground water, with many significant springs functioning throughout the year. The water that flows rapidly through the system is well‐mixed and consistent in its major characteristics. The DO concentration > 5 mg L^?1, averaging 8.53 mg L^?1 (three DO values < 5 mg L^?1 were observed, all at the same spring). Some variability in water character was observed for Sp. Cond.; these differences could be related to the spring‐source waters originating in limestone or basaltic terrain. Furthermore, an increase in Sp. Cond. in the lower reaches of the river might be related to salinization, resulting from surface water and near‐surface ground water withdrawals for anthropogenic use, particularly irrigation.     

Geochemistry of the sediments of the El-Kabir River and Akkar watershed in Syria and Lebanon

A total of 39 sediment samples were collected from the El‐Kabir River and its major tributaries during the low‐flow period of August/September 2001. Of these samples, six were selected for a scan for pesticide residues, polychlorinated biphenyls and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). An additional seven samples were analysed for major elements and trace elements. Despite the limited number of samples analysed, it can be concluded that major elements reflect the distribution and chemistry of major rock types in the watershed, the sodium oxide concentrations indicate an early onset of salinization in the coastal plain, dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane is currently in use in the watershed despite being a banned substance, the PAH contamination is directly linked to an old, disused railway track, and chromium and nickel are the two trace elements showing anthropogenic enrichment, being attributed to leather tanning and metal plating by small‐scale industries in the watershed.     

Environmental management of the waters of the El-Kabir River and the associated Akkar watershed

The Akkar watershed of the El‐Kabir River forms the northern boundary of Lebanon with Syria and drains into the Eastern Mediterranean Sea. This paper endeavours to provide a management plan tailored to the issues and needs of the Akkar watershed. It is not designed as a simplistic workbook of procedures but as a series of broad, thematic recommendations addressing the environmental problems identified by technical studies and interaction with the inhabitants of the watershed. It outlines a three‐phase (short, medium and long‐term) approach to address public health and water sustainability in the context of an enduring management system. In all phases, a set of underlying principles are utilized which incorporate a watershed approach, collaboration and cooperation, sustainability, a balance between water quantity and quality, equity and public involvement.     

长江源和怒江源区水体氮磷化学计量特征初探

根据2016年长江源和怒江源区现场调查获取的水质监测资料,分析了长江源和怒江源区河湖水体的基本理化参数、氮磷含量和形态指标,并利用氮磷化学计量比(m(TN)∶m(TP),氮磷质量比)特征评估了江源地区河湖水体的氮磷养分限制状态。结果表明:长江源和怒江源区河湖水体的总氮含量介于0.475~0.956 mg/L,满足地表水Ⅱ—Ⅲ类水质标准;总磷含量介于0.006~0.017 mg/L,满足地表水Ⅰ—Ⅱ类水质标准;硝态氮占总氮含量的43.5%~85.5%,是河湖水体氮素的主要组成部分,对江源地区水体总氮污染的贡献更大;氮磷比介于33.7~79.3,磷素是江源区河湖水体中浮游植物生长的限制性营养因子。研究成果可为揭示江源地区河湖水体的富营养化进程和水生态环境保护提供数据支撑。     

引江济太对不同水域氮磷浓度的影响

在国内外调水实践的基础上,运用现状监测资料,具体分析流经望虞河、望亭立交水利枢纽调入太湖的长江水质和太湖不同湖区的水质,研究在调水初期及其后的过程中,氮磷浓度影响水质的变化规律。结果表明:长江水源中总磷、总氮浓度总体上低于贡湖、梅梁湖;长江水在流经望虞河进入太湖的过程中,太湖地区水质随着进水时间的延长而好转,水质浓度与进水流量的大小成反比;"引江济太"调水对迅速抑制太湖蓝藻暴发起到了重要作用。     

天津海河磷的分布特征

采集海河干流重要断面、相应排污渠以及部分支流(北运河、子牙河、南运河)共29个监测断面的水样,对样品中的溶解性活性磷(SRP)、总溶解态磷(TDP)与总磷(TP)进行测定,并分析其分布特征。结果显示:海河干流各断面的TP质量浓度为0.4~3.5mg/L,已超出GB3838—2002《地表水环境质量标准》Ⅴ类水质标准,SRP质量浓度0.09~0.75 mg/L,TDP质量浓度0.24~1.42 mg/L;各排污渠(支流)TP质量浓度0.2~5.0 mg/L,SRP质量浓度0.01~3.63 mg/L,TDP质量浓度0.12~4.16 mg/L。排污渠(支流)多数断面的含磷量比相应干流的高。天津海河总磷以总溶解态磷为主要形态,这和海河悬浮颗粒物浓度较低有关。     

Optimal Water Resources Management: Case of Lower Litani River, Lebanon

The pressures of human population and patterns of development frequently jeopardize the integrity of river systems worldwide. An integrated approach to water resources management is essential, particularly in developing countries. This study presents the results of the water resources optimization conducted for the Lower Litani River Basin in Lebanon. The overall aim of the project is to develop, test, and critically evaluate an innovative approach to water resources management in the Mediterranean region. The method explores the ways in which multiple environmental, economic, and social benefits can be achieved through integrated management of water resources. The Water Resources Model was utilized to assess the efficiency of the baseline model scenario and for the optimization process of the different scenarios of the Litani Lower Basin. Strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats analysis was applied in order to derive the objectives and constraints. Results revealed that the potential retained scenarios aim at decreasing water consumption and demand, losses, and return flow. These scenarios mainly include the shift to drip irrigation, awareness campaigns, and losses control in domestic supply pipes. Other retained scenarios having a higher shortfall rely on the use of the Channel concrete lining to decrease losses and return flow, in addition to the awareness campaigns in both domestic and irrigation sectors, and less consumptive/more efficient irrigation methods such as sprinkler and drip irrigation at variable application percentages. Hence, most of the interventions or measures proposed are generally not costly and can be implemented.     

黄河下游引黄灌区主要河系硝态氮及铵态氮安全评价

以德州引黄灌区为例,探讨灌区主要水系部分水化学特征及硝态氮(NO-3-N)与铵态氮(NH+4-N)污染状况。结果表明,pH、电导率(EC)、NO-3-N及NH+4-N含量存在明显的空间差异。NO-3-N受人类活动影响,灌区北部卫运河-漳卫新河以及德惠新河污染严重,呈带状分布;而马颊河及徒骇河受引黄水补给的影响范围较广,污染程度相对较低。NH+4-N污染除卫运河外,主要呈点源分布,各水系均有超标河段,而影响NH+4-N的可能因素更多,有待进一步深入研究。本研究为评价该区引黄灌渠对NO-3-N和NH+4-N的影响提供科学依据。     

袁河底泥污染物监测与分析

本文通过对袁河沉积物中氨氮、总氮、总磷和COD(重铬酸钾法)含量的监测,分析袁河底泥污染物的分布规律,并通过同一断面袁河污染物与底泥中相应污染物含量的对比,研究底泥污染物的来源,由此得出除个别断面外,沉积物中污染物含量高的断面河水中的含量相应的也较高。对比袁河与太子河流域可知,袁河流域沉积物污染程度远低于太子河流域。这就为维持袁河河流生态健康,合理利用袁河水资源提供了依据。     

渭河中下游及主要支流氮素沿程变化与来源

渭河作为黄河的第一大支流正面临日益严重的人类活动的影响。本研究以渭河中下游为研究区,探讨干流和主要支流水化学特征及硝态氮(NO3--N)和铵态氮(NH4+-N)污染状况、沿程变化和可能影响因子。研究结果表明:渭河中下游及其支流水质以铵态氮超标为主。人类活动的影响已经广泛波及流域内干流和支流,部分采样点结果已经接近饮用水标准临界值。对NH4+-N而言,中游和支流流域应以防止点源污染为主,而下游则需全面加强环境保护工作,特别是污水排放的管理。对NO3--N而言,宝鸡和渭南的下游方向将是重点防范区,而支流的水肥合理利用应全面推广。     

渭河河水氮污染特征分析

通过对渭河下游控制断面华县站1976年-2000年的氮浓度与流量监测数据进行分析,发现:①氨氮、亚硝氮和硝氮的年平均浓度在研究年内呈现增加趋势,80年代增幅比90年代大;总氮的年平均浓度呈现相反趋势;②1976年-1993年硝氮年平均浓度大于氨氮年平均浓度,1994以后明显小于氨氮的;③氨氮的枯季浓度比平水期和丰水期的都高,90年代这种趋势更加明显。河流径流减少和流域废污水增加是导致该现象的主要原因;④1976年-2000年点源和非点源贡献的氮污染都呈现上升趋势,不过总体上非点源污染贡献突出,主要和流域废污水排放量及氮肥施用量增加有关。     

北运河(北京段)底泥磷含量及其对上覆水质的影响

采用SMT和Psenner分级提取法分别测定了北运河(北京段)底泥总磷和各结合态磷的含量,结果表明,春季北运河底泥TP平均含量为1 086.29mg/kg,含量偏高,属严重污染;各结合态磷平均含量顺序为Ca-P>Al-P>Fe-P>NH4Cl-P>Res-P>Org-P,相同结合态磷的含量在不同采样点存在明显差异。通过对各结合态磷与上覆水质的相关性分析发现,北运河(北京段)底泥TP含量主要受NH4Cl-P、Fe-P、Al-P和Res-P影响,其中Al-P的影响最大;NH4Cl-P、Fe-P、Al-P和Res-P均与上覆水含磷量显著相关,其中BAP(BAP≈NH4Cl-P+Fe-P+Al-P)平均含量达到TP的48.63%,且与上覆水含磷量极显著相关,说明底泥磷特别是BAP的转化释放是引起上覆水体富营养化的重要因素。     

长江中、下游干流磷的沿程分布特征研究

为了解长江中下游磷营养盐的分布特征及磷素的污染状况,2014年5月29日至6月7日沿长江中、下游干流在湖北武汉,江西九江,安徽安庆,江苏的南通、镇江、南京,上海等地设置采样断面,现场监测表层、中层和底层水体中总磷（TP）、溶解性总磷（TDP）、颗粒态总磷（TPP）、溶解性正磷酸盐（SOP）的含量,分析干流磷的沿程分布特征。研究结果表明：长江中、下游干流各采样地TP平均含量范围在0．15～0．25 mg／L,各采样地下游TP平均含量高于上游,各采样地下游左岸及右岸TP平均含量较中泓处高,且左岸TP平均含量较右岸高;各采样地TDP平均含量范围为0．02～0．13 mg／L,且采样地下游TDP平均含量较上游高;各采样地TPP平均含量范围为0．10～0．20 mg／L,沿长江中下游沿程方向TPP占TP百分比逐渐减小,但TPP仍是长江中下游TP的主要贡献者,TPP分布与叶绿素a的分布极为相似,二者呈显著正相关;各采样地SOP平均含量范围为0．02～0．11 mg／L,且 SOP平均含量沿长江中、下游沿程方向显示出增加趋势,SOP是TDP的主要组成部分,SOP平均含量占TDP平均含量70％以上。总体上,长江中下游水体中各形态磷含量较低,水质良好。     

基于流域尺度的黄河水生态补偿机制

分析黄河流域水生态补偿实践现状,从原则、内容和水生态补偿资金测算三方面构建了黄河流域水生态补偿机制,提出了加强水生态补偿机制基础研究与试点工作的建议。     

白洋淀水体氮、磷和重金属的变化特征及影响因素

为了探讨白洋淀水体污染的变化特征和来源,利用多元统计方法对白洋淀湖水中离子、营养盐（氮、磷）和重金属（Cd、Cr、Cu、Ni、Pb及Zn）进行研究,分析其时空变化,并揭示其影响因素和主要来源。结果表明：白洋淀湖水水化学类型包括HCO₃-Ca·Mg和SO₄·Cl-Ca·Mg,湖水总氮、Cd、Cr、Cu、Pb及Zn的平均值均高于V类水质限值。近20年来湖水总氮和总磷的平均值均呈现波动性下降,而两者无明显相关性,主要受气候和人类活动的共同影响。在空间上,淀内湖水营养盐和重金属表现出西部地区高、东南地区低的特征,多元统计分析进一步证实流域府河携带的污染物质是白洋淀水体氮、磷和重金属的主要来源,也是影响其空间变化的主要因素,但淀内不同地区的人类活动对湖水中N、P、Pb及Cr的影响也不可忽视。     

农田排水沟渠底泥-间隙水-上覆水氮磷迁移转化规律研究

研究氮磷在底泥、上覆水以及两者间交换介质-间隙水三者之间的迁移转化规律对控制农业面源污染具有重要科学意义。本研究对降雨和无降雨情况下氮磷在沟渠底泥、间隙水和上覆水间的迁移转化规律进行了分析;同时,对扫描电子显微镜(SEM)下底泥颗粒的微观形貌进行了观测。结果表明:在水稻生长前期氮磷被吸附贮存在底泥中,中后期被再次释放出来;在整个水稻生长期内,间隙水的总氮、总磷浓度约为上覆水的3.1和6.5倍,氮主要以NH_4~+-N形式存在;在降雨过程中,沟渠底泥成为氮磷释放的源,NH_4~+-N为氮的主要迁移形态,上覆水中NH_4~+-N逐渐向NO_3~--N转化,颗粒态氮磷对TN、TP流失有较大影响;沟渠底泥颗粒表面粗糙、具有一定的微孔结构,为底泥吸附氮磷提供了条件。     

黄河泥沙对氮迁移转化的影响及环境效应

黄河具有高泥沙含量的特点,泥沙对营养元素和污染物的迁移转化具有重要的影响。含氮化合物是我国河流的主要污染物之一,是国家重点防控污染物,是影响河流水体健康的重要因素。本文基于实验室模拟实验和野外采样研究成果系统综述了泥沙对河流氮迁移转化的影响及其环境效应。重点分析了(1)黄河水体含氮化合物的时空分布特征及来源;(2)含氮化合物的悬浮泥沙-水界面过程以及悬浮泥沙对氮转化过程的促进作用;(3)悬浮泥沙含量和粒径等对有机氮降解、硝化作用、反硝化作用、耦合硝化反硝化作用以及厌氧氨氧化作用的影响;(4)泥沙对温室气体N₂O产生和排放的影响,以及(5)水沙条件变异对氮迁移转化作用的影响。研究结果可为气候变化和人类活动双重作用下河流氮污染治理以及温室气体的排放控制提供科学依据。