Rheological characterisation of discrete long glass fibre (LGF) reinforced thermoplastics

Three experimental techniques have been employed to assess the rheological behaviour of discrete long glass fibre reinforced polypropylene and propylene/ethylene copolymers. A Carri Med cone and plate rheogoniometer has been used to determine shear viscosity as a function of strain rate and time at temperatures relevant to the extrusion and injection moulding processes. A bubble inflation test (BIT) has been designed and used to characterise the behaviour of these composites under the extensional flow fields typical of blow moulding and thermoforming. Finally a squeeze load test (SLT), similar to those developed for sheet moulding compounds (SMC) and glass mat thermoplastics (GMT), has been used to explore the rheological behaviour of the long glass fibre (LGF) materials under compression moulding conditions, in particular to assess the relative importance of shear and extensional flow.     

Fracture toughness of short-fibre reinforced thermoplastics

The failure process of short-fibre reinforced thermoplastics is characterized by different energy dissipation mechanisms, especially by mode II debonding along the fibre/matrix interface, sliding of debonded regions, brittle or ductile matrix fracture and pull-out. It is assumed that these failure processes are acting within a certain zone ahead of the notch tip— the dissipation zone. The modes of energy dissipation are mainly affected by the matrix fracture mode (brittle or ductile) which is mainly determined by the loading rate or temperature conditions. On the basis of an energy principle and relationships for the different energy dissipation mechanisms, we propose theoretical expressions for the static and dynamic fracture toughness and we compare these with experimental results.     

Predicting the tensile strength of natural fibre reinforced thermoplastics

The tensile strength of short natural fibre reinforced thermoplastics (NFRT) was modeled using a modified rule of mixtures (ROM) strength equation. A clustering parameter, requiring the maximum composite fibre volume fraction, forms the basis of the modification. The clustering parameter highlights that as fibre loading increases, the available fibre stress transfer area is decreased. Consequently, at high volume fractions this decrease in stress transfer area increases the brittleness of the short fibre composite and decreases the tensile strength of the material. A key parameter, the interfacial shear strength, was determined by fitting the micromechanical strength model to tensile strength data at low fibre loading (10 wt%) where there is minimal fibre clustering.To test the modified ROM strength model, compression molded specimens of high-density polyethylene (HDPE) reinforced with hemp fibres, hardwood fibres, rice hulls, and E-glass fibres were created with fibre mass fractions of 10–60 wt%. The modified ROM strength model was found to adequately predict the tensile strength of the various composite specimens.     

Modeling of uncertainties in long fiber reinforced thermoplastics

The present study is concerned with a numerical scheme for the prediction of the uncertainty of the effective elastic properties of long fiber reinforced composites with thermoplastic matrix (LFT) produced by standard injection or press molding technologies based on the uncertainty of the microstructural geometry and topology. The scheme is based on a simple analysis of the single-fiber problem using the rules of mixture. The transition to the multi-fiber problem with different fiber orientations is made by the formulation of an ensemble average with defined probability distributions for the fiber angles. In the result, the standard deviations of the local fiber angles together with the local fiber content are treated as stochastic variables. The corresponding probability distributions for the effective elastic constants are determined in a numerically efficient manner by a discretization of the space of the random variables and the analysis of predefined cases within this space.     

Fatigue damage model for injection-molded short glass fibre reinforced thermoplastics

The present paper is a contribution to the phenomenological modelling of fatigue non-linear cumulative diffuse damage in short glass fibre reinforced thermoplastic matrix composites. In such materials, fatigue damage kinetic exhibits three stages, namely: (i) material softening and damage initiation, (ii) coalescence and propagation of micro-cracks and (iii) macroscopic cracks propagation and material failure. The proposed model is built in the framework of the continuum damage mechanics and aims at predicting these three stages of the damage evolution. This model is based on the approach initially proposed by Ladevèze and Le Dantec [Ladevèze P, Le Dantec E. Damage modelling of the elementary ply for laminated composites. Comp Sci Technol 1992;43:257–67]. It extends the previous approach and takes into account the important stiffness reduction observed during the first damage stage. The above is modelled by the integration of a combined Norton-like power law and an exponential law expressing the damage rates as a function of the associated thermodynamic dual forces. The model has been formulated in terms of strain energy, so that makes easy its numerical implementation into the finite element code Abaqus/Standard through a user defined material subroutine UMAT. Numerical simulations are performed on a short glass fibre reinforced thermoplastic described by a given set of damage parameters. Damage evolutions predicted by the developed model reproduce well those observed for this kind of composites under cyclic loading. A parametric study is performed to understand the effects of the model parameters on the damage accumulation and their sensitivity on its kinetic. The sensitivity study would be useful since it contributes to optimise the ongoing experimental procedure aimed at identifying the damage model parameters.     

Fracture behaviour of collimated thermoplastic poly(ethylene terephthalate) reinforced with short E-glass fibre

The fracture behaviour of thermoplastic poly(ethylene terephthalate) reinforced with short E-glass fibre was investigated using fractography and a fracture mechanics approach. The observed microstructures, crack propagation and the stress-rupture lifetime data indicate a sudden breakdown induced by far-field effectS. The critical damage appears to be correlated with a ductile-to-brittle transition of matrix fracture. The calculation of fracture toughness for various fibre orientations indicates that the fibre pull-out energy is the dominant term in the case in which the fibre orientation is perpendicular to the notch tip.     

Post-cracking behaviour of steel fibre reinforced concrete

Recently, RILEM TC 162-TDF has proposed equivalent,f _eq , and residual,f _R , flexural tensile strength parameters to characterize and simulate the post-cracking behaviour of steel fibre reinforced concrete (SFRC) structures. In the current work, more than two hundred flexural tests are carried out according to the RILEM TC 162-TDF recommendations and the corresponding values off _eq andf _R parameters are evaluated. In series of specimens reinforced with fibres of a distinct length/diameter ratio, similar values off _eq andf _R parameters were obtained in these series. Although a strong correlation betweenf _eq andf _R was determined, a larger scatter off _R values was observed thereby revealingf _eq to be more appropriate for design purposes. A numerical strategy involving a cross sectional layered model and an inverse analysis was developed to evaluate the post-cracking stress-strain and the stress-crack opening diagrams for the tested SFRC. This strategy was also used to determine a relation between the post-cracking strain, ɛ ^pcr , and the crack opening displacement,w, (ɛ ^pcr =w/L _p ) which is useful for evaluating the crack opening when numerical strategies based on a stress-strain approach are used. The obtainedL _p values range from half the specimen cross section height to half the distance between the tip of the notch and the top of the cross section.

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Résumé Récemment, pour caractériser et simuler le comportement post-fissuration en traction du béton renforcé des fibres d'acier, la Commission Technique 162-TDF de la RILEM a proposé des paramètres désignés par résistance équivalente, f_eq, et résistance résiduelle, f_R, à la contrainte en flexion. Dans le travail présent, des valeurs de ces paramètres sont obtenues sur plus de deux cents essais de flexion effectués en accord avec les recommandations du TC 162-TDF de la RILEM. Des valeurs semblables de f_eq et f_R ont été obtenues dans des séries d'éprouvettes renforcées avec des fibres d'un rapport longueur/diamètre distinct. Bien qu'une forte corrélation entre f_eq et f_R ait été déterminée, une plus grande dispersion de valeurs du f_R a été observée, en démontrant que f_eq est plus approprié pour les buts du projet. Pour évaluer les diagrammes contrainte-déformation et contrainte-ouverture après fissuration, une stratégie numérique a été développée, en utilisant un modèle de section et en effectuant une analyse inverse. Cette stratégie a aussi été utilisée pour déterminer une relation entre la contrainte après fissuration, ɛ ^pcr , et l'ouverture de fissure, w, (ɛ ^pcr =w/L _p ) utile pour évaluer l'ouverture de la fissure quand les stratégies numériques sont basées sur une approche contrainte-déformation. Les valeurs de L_p obtenues ont varié entre la demi-hauteur de la section de l'éprouvette et la demi-distance entre l'extrémité de l'entaille et le sommet de la section.

     

Comparison between the short and long term behaviour of fibre reinforced and unreinforced concrete beams

The paper deals with the results of tests on concrete beams with and without steel fibres, reinforced (with high yield flexural steel only) and without any reinforcement loaded statically both long and short term. Tests were carried out for both serviceability and ultimate limit states. Measurements were taken of load, strains, crack width and crack pattern, and deflection. For short term loading the beams were loaded incrementally to failure, whilst for the long term tests were loaded incrementally to their service load which was maintained for 28 days before being increased to failure. From the long term tests the effects of creep can be determined.

A total of 15 beams were tested over 28 days. The fibres were stainless steel with an aspect ratio of 55 and a volume fraction of 1·5%. In all cases the results indicate successively better performances as fibre reinforcement and bar reinforcement were added.     

Shear behaviour of steel fibre reinforced concrete beams

The possibility of substituting traditional transverse reinforcement (stirrups) for steel fibres in precast elements can significantly reduce production costs. In the present paper, the shear behaviour of prestressed elements has been investigated by means of experimental tests on full scale beams. Tests concern beams with conventional as well as steel fibre reinforcement. Experimental results show that the shear behaviour of fibre reinforced concrete beams without conventional reinforcement is similar to, or even better than that of beams with stirrups. When used in beams with stirrups, steel fibres significantly improve their shear strength. A discussion on the contribution of steel fibres on the shear strength is also presented, with reference to the latest RILEM provisions.

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Résumé La possibilité de remplacer des armatures transversales traditionnelles par des fibres d'acier dans des éléments pré-tendus peut apporter des améliorations considérables sur les performances structurales. Dans ce rapport, le comportement en cisaillement des éléments précontraints a été étudié à l'aide de tests expérimentaux sur des poutres à échelle grandeur nature. Les essais portent aussi bien sur des poutres avec armatures traditionnelles que sur des poutres renforcées à l'aide de fibres. Les résultats expérimentaux montrent que les performances des poutres en béton de fibres sans armatures traditionnelles sont similaires, sinon meilleures, à celles des poutres avec armature ordinaire de cisaillement. Lorsqu'elles sont utilisées dans des poutres avec armatures traditionnelles les fibres d'acier améliorent considérablement leur résistance en cisaillement.

     

Long-fibre reinforced thermoplastics

A new family of long-fibre reinforced thermoplastics enables injection mouldings to be produced having mechanical properties that approach those of a component made by continuous fibre reinforcement fabrication. The features of the new range and the opportunity it affords designers and users of engineering plastics are described.     

Seismic behaviour of steel fibre reinforced concrete piles

This paper provides test data on seismic behaviour of SFRC piles. Four large-scale specimens are subjected to a combination of constant axial load and alternating cyclic flexure. A similar number of specimens are subjected to alternating cyclic flexure without axial load. Twin-cone fibres and new twin-crimped fibres in weight fraction between 40 kg/m³ and 50 kg/m³ are used.     

Fatigue behaviour of continuous glass fibre reinforced composites

A study has been undertaken of fatigue in glass fibre reinforced composites. Two matrix resins were tested: a standard polyester and a polyurethane-vinyl-ester, which was designed to have a higher toughness. Three different types of glass fibre fabrics were used for reinforcement: a conventional woven roving and two stitch-bonded cloths. The glass cloths were combined into various lay-ups, in order to consider the effects of matrix, cloth and lay-up on the fatigue strength. Additionally, a study was undertaken to evaluate the micromechanisms that occurred during fatigue and how damage accumulated throughout the sample lifetime. This involved measuring stiffness changes during fatigue cycling, followed by microscopic study of the samples. It was found that similar damage micromechanisms occurred in each lay-up regardless of resin and cloth type, and these included matrix cracking, delamination and fibre breakage. However, differences were observed in the extent, location and rate of damage, and these were consistent with the variations seen in the fatigue strengths.     

Viscoelastic behaviour of a unidirectional fibre reinforced plastic

The orthogonal linear viscoelastic constitutive equation is given by the Laplace transform domain elastic constants which are calculated from the law of mixture and a structural unit cell. Non-linear constitutive relations in high stress regions are derived by considering non-linear properties of the components and the stress redistribution in the matrix on account of debonding between fibre and matrix. A linear failure criterion and a fracture criterion are also investigated theoretically. Experimental works are conducted for uniaxial and biaxial specimens of cold-drawn copper fibre-epoxy resin composite having various fibre volume fractions and fibre directions. Fairly good agreements are observed between the calculated and experimental results.     

Compressive behaviour of unidirectional flax fibre reinforced composites

The compressive strength of unidirectional flax fibre epoxy composites was studied. The compressive strength is influenced negatively by the presence of kink bands in the flax fibres. Improvement of the adhesion between the fibres and the epoxy resin can be achieved easily by removing the thin wax layer which covers the surface of the flax fibres. However, improving the adhesion between fibres and matrix only improves the compressive strength to a very limited extent. Stabilisation of the kink bands present in the fibres and improvement of the compressive properties of the fibres can be achieved by impregnating the fibres with melamine formaldehyde (MF) resin. This results in a large increase in the compressive strength of the resulting composite. The increase in compressive strength is proportional to the amount of MF resin present in the composite. However, the presence of the resin in the fibres lowers their tensile strength, and subsequently the tensile strength of the resulting composite.     

A study on the characteristics of glass fibre reinforced thermoplastics by transfer moulding

Lately, the use of fibre reinforced thermoplastics (FRTP) has increased due to its increased mouldability compared to thermosetting FRP material.

FRTP includes stampable sheet, short and long fibre reinforced thermoplastic pellets, continuous fibre reinforced thermoplastics sheets, etc. The long fibre reinforced thermoplastic (LFRTP) pellet has better mechanical properties than short fibre reinforced pellets and better mouldability than stampable sheet. At present, injection moulding method is mainly used for moulding LFRTP pellets because of its high productivity.

However, the long fibre of LFRTP pellets, whose length is the same as pellet length, is degraded during processing if conventional injection moulding machines are used, and as a result, the mechanical properties are not improved as expected in many cases. Therefore, a new moulding process is required to make good use of LFRTP pellets.

For this study, a transfer moulding apparatus was designed and built to minimize fibre degradation of the moulded parts.

Firstly, the LFRTP pellets with fibre lengths of 3, 6, 9, 12.7 and 17 mm were prepared in order to clarify the difference of mechanical properties due to fibre length. The fibre ratio was 30% in weight for all cases and the same polypropylene was used. They were moulded to the shape of the test specimens. Tensile, bending and Izod impact strengths were measured by using these test specimens. Secondly, LFRTP pellets were moulded to the shape of test specimens by the transfer moulding apparatus and conventional injection moulding machine, and then mechanical properties were measured. At the same time, short fibre pellets were moulded to the smae shape of test specimens by the injection moulding machine, and mechanical properties were compared with those of LFRTP pellets.

With the long glass fibre reinforced polypropylene, good results of fibre preservation and mechanical properties were obtained by the transfer moulding apparatus which was built for this study. The impact strength was increased remarkably as the fibre length increased, and consequently the preservation of fibre length in the moulded parts was especially effective in improving the impact strength.     

Fracture toughness of short carbon fibre reinforced thermoplastic polyimide

The fracture toughness testing of short fibre reinforced thermoplastic materials were performed. Materials tested were the polyimide resin and also that reinforced with 20 wt% or 30 wt% short carbon fibre. For introducing the initial crack, the tapping method, the sliding method and the bridge indentation method were examined. Among them, the sliding method was found to be effective for every case. The fracture tests were conducted by the three-point bending test with several loading rates. Stable crack growth was observed for the neat material while unstable fracture occurred for the reinforced materials. The critical values of the stress intensity factor at crack initiation were greater for the reinforced materials than for the neat resin. The fracture toughness of the 30 wt% reinforced material was independent of loading rate while that of 20 wt% reinforced material increased with loading rate. In order to investigate the fracture mechanisms, fractographic observations were also performed.