Defense of tests prevents objective consideration of validity and fairness.

In defending tests of cognitive abilities, knowledge, or skills (CAKS) from the skepticism of their “family members, friends, and neighbors” and aiding psychologists forced to defend tests from “myth and hearsay” in their own skeptical social networks (p. 215), Sackett, Borneman, and Connelly (see record 2008-05553-001) focused on evaluating validity coefficients, racial or gender group differences, and fair assessment research. In doing so, they concluded that CAKS tests generally yield valid and fair test scores for their intended purposes, but because the authors did not adequately attend to (a) research design issues (e.g., inclusion of independent or predictor variables [IPV] and dependent variables or criteria), (b) statistical assumptions underlying interpretation of their analyses (e.g., bivariate normality of distributions of test scores and criteria), and (c) conceptual concerns (e.g., whether racial categories should be used as explanatory constructs), alternative conclusions about CAKS test score validity and fairness are plausible. Although all of the foregoing areas of concern are germane to each of the assertions addressed by Sackett et al. (2008), the focus here is on Assertions 6 through 8 (p. 216; hereinafter called the fairness assertions [FA]) because making accurate inferences about fairness requires measurement experts to engage in a paradigmatic shift where sociodemographic groups (e.g., Blacks, Latinos/Latinas) are concerned, whereas, for the most part, addressing the other assertions merely requires a reminder of which standard psychometric principles have not been followed (American Educational Research Association [AERA], American Psychological Association [APA], & National Council on Measurement in Education [NCME], 1999). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Use of inpatient mental health services by members of ethnic minority groups.

National data on psychiatric hospitalization point to marked ethnic-related differences. Blacks and Native Americans are considerably more likely than Whites to be hospitalized; Blacks are more likely than Whites to be admitted as schizophrenic and less likely to be diagnosed as having an affective disorder; Asian Americans/Pacific Islanders are less likely than Whites to be admitted, but remain for a lengthier stay, at least in state and county mental hospitals. Differences are clearcut, but they ignore a major source of care: psychiatric hospitalization in placements other than psychiatric units and hospitals. Explanations for observed minority-White differences in hospitalization can be evaluated only partially or not at all: Such explanations included ethnic-related differences in socioeconomic standing and in the prevalence of major psychopathology; differential stigma, or capacity to tolerate or support a dysfunctional significant other; access and use of alternative services; and bias in the behavior of gatekeepers, especially practitioners assigning diagnostic labels and making involuntary commitment decisions. More research is needed to help explain these striking differences in utilization. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceptual integration on the Rorschach as an indicator of cognitive capacity: A developmental study of racial differences in a clinic population.

Rorschach protocols of 173 7-14 yr old Blacks and Whites who had been evaluated at a child guidance clinic were rescored with respect to developmental level of perceptual integration. Blacks had higher perceptual-integration scores in comparison to Whites. This finding, however, was accounted for by the higher performance of low-IQ (70-89) Blacks as compared to low-IQ Whites. No differences were obtained between average-IQ (90-109) Blacks or Whites. It is suggested that standard IQ tests may not adequately tap the cognitive capacity of some Black children and that use of the Rorschach from a developmental/structural perspective may provide a useful adjunctive measure of intelligence that would more realistically assess children's cognitive competence. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationship between scholastic aptitude, perception of university climate, and college success for Black and White students.

Computed, in racial subgroups, the correlations of university climate and Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) scores with 2 criteria of academic success--GPA and students' estimated probability of receiving a degree. Factor analyses of a 115-item university climate questionnaire were performed separately for samples of 138 Black and 550 White college students. SAT scores were significantly related to GPA for both Blacks and Whites, although they were not related to Ss' estimated probability of recieving a degree in either racial group. Some university climate scales were significantly related to the 2 criteria. Viewing the university in a positive way was associated (a) with high criterion scores for Whites and with low criterion scores for Blacks, and (b) with high SAT scores for Whites and low SAT scores for Blacks. Although GPA was significantly correlated with estimated probability of degree in both Black and White samples, the correlation was significantly higher in the Black sample. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Multiple myeloma among Blacks and Whites in the United States: role of cigarettes and alcoholic beverages

In the United States, the incidence rates of multiple myeloma in Blacks are more than twice those in Whites, but the etiology of this cancer is poorly understood. A population-based case-control interview study of 571 subjects (365 White, 206 Black) with multiple myeloma and 2,122 controls (1,155 White, 967 Black) living in three areas of the United States (Georgia, Michigan, New Jersey) offered the opportunity to investigate the relationship with smoking and alcohol drinking and to evaluate whether these factors might contribute to the excess risk of multiple myeloma in Blacks. For Blacks and Whites of either gender, there were no significantly elevated risks associated with ever use of cigarettes or alcoholic beverages and no consistent patterns with either intensity or duration of use. These data support previous studies indicating that smoking and drinking are not related causally to the risk of multiple myeloma, and thus cannot account for the racial disparity in incidence rates.     

Differences in measures of personality and family environment among Black and White alcoholics.

Reviewing 16 studies, D. Pritchard and A. Rosenblatt (see record 1980-11070-001) claimed to find no evidence that the MMPI is racially biased. M. Gynther and S. B. Green (see record 1980-11037-001), reviewing 40 studies, concluded that racial bias in the MMPI varies as a function of sampling, with bias more likely when normal Blacks are compared with normal Whites but not when abnormal groups are compared. The present study compared MMPI scores of 272 White and 56 Black alcoholics. Blacks scored significantly lower on a few scales (e.g., Hysteria), but profile differences were not clinically meaningful, particularly when the covariates of age, education, and socioeconomic status were controlled. Blacks differed appreciably on the Family Environment Scale (FES), however, rating social climates more positively than Whites. Findings that Blacks obtained negligible differences on a wholly White normed test (the MMPI), contrasted with the significant differences and better adjustment shown by Blacks over Whites on a test normed with minority-group representation (the FES), interject new considerations into the issue of racial bias. Whereas nonsignificant differences would not appear to support the contention of racial bias on the MMPI, FES results question whether such nonsignificance actually rules out test bias. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

WISC-R subscale patterns of abilities of Blacks and Whites matched on Full Scale IQ.

270 Black and 270 White children (ages 6–16.5 yrs) drawn from the national stratified random sample used in the standardization of the WISC-R were matched on age, sex, and WISC-R Full-Scale IQ to facilitate investigation of the patterns of specific cognitive abilities, as measured by the 12 subtests of the WISC-R, between the 2 racial groups. Multivariate analysis of the patterns of subtest differences between Whites and Blacks and group comparisons on 3 orthogonalized factor scores (Verbal, Performance, Memory) showed small but reliable average White–Black differences in patterns of ability. The IQ-matched racial groups showed no significant difference on the Verbal factor; Whites exceeded Blacks on the Performance (largely spatial visualization) factor; Blacks exceeded Whites on the Memory factor. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Stereotype threat in criminal interrogations: Why innocent Black suspects are at risk for confessing falsely.

Little theoretical attention has been paid to evidence that Blacks are overrepresented in samples of false confessors compared to Whites. One possible explanation is that innocent Black suspects experience stereotype threat in interrogations and that this threat causes Black suspects to experience more arousal, self-regulatory efforts, and cognitive load compared to White suspects. These psychological mechanisms could lead innocent Black suspects to display more nonverbal behaviors associated with deception and, ironically, increase the likelihood that police investigators perceive them as guilty. In response, investigators might engage in more coercive tactics and exert more pressure to confess on Black suspects than White suspects. This could increase the need to escape interrogation and the likelihood of doing so by confessing falsely more for Blacks than for Whites. I present these hypotheses within a social psychological framework, and discuss future directions for testing the model and theoretical and practical implications of such work. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Teachers' stereotypes of Asian, Black, and White students.

This research uses two different measurement operations to examine contemporary stereotypes of Asians, Blacks, and Whites held by an ethnically diverse sample of teachers. Data were drawn from a sample of 188 teachers representing over 160 schools in Southern California. Consistent with previous research, participants endorsed a "model minority" stereotype of Asians with regard to intelligence, academic striving, introversion, and rule compliance. Contrary to expectation, there was substantial congruence in the degree of uniformity and favorableness of the stereotypic traits associated with Blacks and Whites, with participants' revealing both strong positive and negative trait associations. The use of both open-ended and fixed-format measurement strategies revealed some method variation in the assessment of participants racial beliefs, with the open-ended format suggesting more complex and heterogeneous racial representations. Results are discussed in terms of methodological issues in stereotype assessment and implications for reducing the impact of racial biases in psychoeducational evaluations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Differential prediction: A methodological artifact?

Examined 31 studies involving the validity of employment and training selection procedures for Blacks and Whites. Each pair of validity coefficients from these studies was determined to be based or not be based on each of the following desirable methodological practices: use of a total number of 50 or more for both Black and White subsamples, use of a criterion for research purposes only, and use of a predictor chosen for its potential relationship to the criterion being predicted. From these data, each study was scored for adherence to the 3 desirable practices. There was a significant relationship between the validity outcome of the studies and the methodological practices score. In addition, in studies in which some validity was obtained, those whose authors reported the study as supporting the differential validity concept received significantly lower methodological practices scores. It is concluded that reported findings of differential prediction can largely be regarded as methodological artifacts. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Expectations and achievement among third-, sixth-, and ninth-grade Black and White males and females.

Hypothesized that (a) boys in 3rd, 6th, and 9th grade would have higher expectations than girls, but only 9th-grade boys would have higher achievement; (b) achievement would increase with grade; (c) Whites would have higher expectations and achievement than Blacks; and (d) realism would increase with grade level. 112 Black and White 3rd, 6th, and 9th graders recorded their expectations and then attempted to perform tasks of math, mazes, or geometric drawings. Contrary to predictions and most previous studies, no significant sex differences were found. Whites achieved higher scores on mazes and drawings than did Blacks. The expectations of Blacks rose with grade level, regardless of concomitant achievements; but expectations of Whites did not. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Adverse impact from a psychometric perspective.

Applied latent trait theory to an analysis of a 64-item multiple-choice skill test administered to 1,035 police recruits to illustrate how 2 shorter tests measuring the same attribute, but having different test characteristic curves, have different degrees of adverse impact. Specifically, ability differences between groups (195 Blacks, 373 Whites) were minimized by use of a 22-item wide-range test and exaggerated by use of a 22-item narrow-range test. In light of these data, claims such as those that performance tests have less adverse impact than paper-and-pencil tests are open to question; the differences attributed to the type of test are completely confounded with the differences in psychometric properties of the tests. The authors propose that the concept of adverse impact be redefined in terms of the degree to which test scores distort any underlying true subgroup differences in the attribute measured. (13 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Some sources of variance in skin conductance.

Investigated factors that might contribute to the variance associated with skin conductance in 30 Whites and 11 Blacks (aged 20–39 yrs). Using dorsal and palmar measures of skin reflectance on the hand, psychometric variables, electrodermal indices, and heart rate, Blacks were found to have lower levels of skin conductance than Whites. There were no differences in heart rate or in self-report measures of arousal between the groups, and the contribution of personality variables to skin conductance variance was, in part, anomalous. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Staying afloat: Within-group swimming proficiency for Whites and Blacks.

Generally, Blacks are less likely than Whites to be proficient at swimming. Blacks also have higher rates of drowning and are underrepresented in competitive swimming and in occupations requiring swimming or water safety skill. In this study, physiological, demographic, and biodata measures were used with military academy cadets to determine the individual factors contributing to within-group swimming proficiency among Blacks as well as Whites. The best predictor of swimming skill was the age at which the cadets had learned to swim. Other items pointed to fitness, sociocultural, and learned or dispositional differences between better and poorer swimmers. Implications for increasing swimming proficiency among Blacks and for future research are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Story recall in young Black and White children: Effects of racial group membership, race of experimenter, and dialect.

Tested the effects of racial group membership, race of E, and dialect on unstructured and probed recall. l6 Black and 16 White 4-6 mo old children were Ss. Subgroups of 4 Ss within each racial group were randomly assigned to the experimental conditions such that order of exposure to E (Black and White) and dialects Standard English vs Black English vernacular) were counterbalanced. Results show that Whites performed better than Blacks in Standard English, Blacks performed better than Whites in Black English vernacular, Blacks tested in Black English vernacular were equivalent to Whites tested in Standard English, and Whites performed better in Standard English than in Black English vernacular. When probed with questions, there was an overall increase in the proportion of correct information for both racial groups. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Shifting standards and stereotype-based judgments

Four studies tested a model of stereotype-based shifts in judgment standards developed by M. Biernat, M. Manis, and T. E. Nelson (1991). The model suggests that subjective judgments of target persons from different social groups may fail to reveal the stereotyped expectations of judges, because they invite the use of different evaluative standards; more "objective" or common rule indicators reduce such standard shifts. The stereotypes that men are more competent than women, women are more verbally able than men, Whites are more verbally able than Blacks, and Blacks are more athletic than Whites were successfully used to demonstrate the shifting standards phenomenon. Several individual-difference measures were also effective in predicting differential susceptibility to standard shifts, and direct evidence was provided that differing comparison standards account for substantial differences in target ratings.     

A response stimulated by Garrett.

Responds to comments by H. E. Garrett (1969) that argue the case for Blacks being less intelligent than Whites. It is suggested that the values expressed in L. Witmer's (1909–1910) proposal that no child should be deprived of the chance for an education only because of intelligence scores are manifested in the concerns that psychologists have about the realization of the individual's potential. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Verbal-performance IQ discrepancies on the WISC-R.

Examined discrepancy scores (Verbal IQ minus Performance IQ) for the WISC-R, using the standardization sample--100 boys and 100 girls at each of 11 age levels between 61/2 and 161/2 yrs (2,200 Ss). The occurrence of significant discrepancy scores (Verbal > Performance and Performance > Verbal) was not significantly related to age, sex, or race, although significant relationships were obtained with both parental occupation and intelligence level. The mean absolute discrepancy score (regardless of sign) was about 10 IQ points for each age group, for boys and girls, for Blacks and Whites, and for the different occupational groups. Discrepancy score norms (cumulative distributions) are presented by intelligence level and are interpreted in terms of their clinical significance. Several of these findings closely parallel results of a study of the 1949 WISC by H. G. Seashore (see record 1952-06292-001). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Minority advances in test performance: A response to Jones.

Suggests that the advances made by minorities in test performance reported by L. V. Jones (see record 1985-26568-001) must be interpreted with some skepticism in light of the self-selecting nature of the College Board Scholastic Achievement Test and the 120-point gap in scores on this test between Blacks and Whites. (1 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Race and vulnerability to stress: An examination of differential vulnerability.

Examined the possibility of race differences in vulnerability to stress through the use of self-report data obtained in 1974–1975 standardized interviews with 658 Whites and 171 Blacks in Florida. Structural models linking SES, age, and life-change events to psychological distress were fit to interview data; interviews were focused on an evaluation of vulnerability. Life-change/distress paths were slightly larger among Blacks than among Whites, though not significantly so. The possible adaptive or coping resources provided by supportive social ties and by fatalistic responses to chronic stress are suggested as topics for further research with regard to psychological well-being among disadvantaged groups. (46 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)