A new investigation with the salting‐out effect on emulsifier‐free emulsion polymerization of methyl methacrylate

The effects of the various salts onto the emulsifier‐free emulsion polymerization of methyl methacrylate (MMA) were investigated. It was found that the kind and amount of the salts were very effective on the polymerization even onto the polymeric products. It is known that the ionic strength of the electrolyte is effective for the polymerization. However, our investigation with the same ionic strength of different electrolyte produced the different effect on the polymerization. It was found that the Stokes radiuses of ions are very important for the reaction kinetics and type of the product. At the same electrolyte concentration, as increased Stokes radii of cation of salts that not react (the fragments of initiator, ions, etc.) in polymerization, polymerization rate and average molecular weight of polymer decreased, polymer particle diameter increased. In the case of Br^? and SO₄⁼ the anions of the salt are also demonstrated some unexpected reactions. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 103: 2494–2500, 2007     

Modified emulsifier‐free emulsion polymerization of butyl methacrylate with ionic or/and nonionic comonomers

A modified emulsifier‐free emulsion polymerization of butyl methacrylate (BMA) with ionic or/and nonionic comonomers was successfully used to prepare nanosized poly(butyl methacrylate) (PBMA) latices with high polymer contents. After seeding particles were generated in an initial emulsion system, consisting of a portion of BMA, water, ionic comonomer [sodium styrenesulfonate (NaSS)] or nonionic comonomer [2‐hydroxyethyl methacrylate (HEMA)] and potassium persulfate, most of the BMA monomer or the mixture of BMA and HEMA was added dropwise to the polymerizing emulsion over a period of 6–12 h. Stable latices with high PBMA contents up to 27% were obtained. It was found that the latex particle sizes (2R_h) were largely reduced (34 nm) by the continuous addition of monomer(s) compared to those (107 nm) obtained by the batch polymerization method. The effect of comonomer concentration on the particle size, the number of PBMA particles/mL of latex (N_d), and the molar mass (M_w) of copolymer during the polymerization were discussed. The surface compositions of latex particles were analyzed by X‐ray photoelectron spectroscopy, indicating that the surface of latex particles was significantly enriched in NaSS or/and HEMA. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 92: 3080–3087, 2004     

Synthesis and characterization of poly(methyl methacrylate) nanoparticles by emulsifier‐free emulsion polymerization with a redox‐initiated system

In this study, the emulsifier‐free emulsion polymerization of methyl methacrylate (MMA) was initiated directly by a Cu²⁺/HSO redox system. Latex particles with negative charge due to the bonded anionic sulfite ion were successfully synthesized after 2 h of reaction at 40–60°C. Scanning electron microscopy pictures showed a uniform particle size distribution, and the average size decreased from 223 to 165 nm wit increasing reaction temperature from 40 to 60°C. The initiation step in the polymerization mechanism was proven to be a redox reaction, in which Cu²⁺ oxidized the bisulfite ion to produce an anionic sulfite radical and proton. The produced anionic sulfite radical then initiated the polymerization of MMA. Moreover, Cu²⁺ not only served as one component in the redox initiator system but also as a chain‐transfer agent that terminated growing polymer chains to produce chains with unsaturated end groups [poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA)? CH?CH₂]. For this system, about 17% PMMA? CH?CH₂ was produced. The tacticities of the PMMA latex prepared at 40–60°C were almost the same, about 62–64% syndiotactic, 33–35% heterotactic, and 3% isotactic. These PMMA latexes had almost the same glass‐transition temperature, 125–127°C, regardless of the reaction temperatures, and their weight‐average molecular weights were in the range between 254,000 and 315,000. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2008     

Kinetics and particle nucleation mechanism of St/BA/qBVPBr emulsifier‐free cationic emulsion polymerization

Stable functional cationic latices were prepared by emulsifier‐free emulsion copolymerization of styrene (St) and butyl‐acrylate (BA) with 1‐butyl‐4‐vinylpyridinium bromide (qBVPBr) as functional comonomer and azobis(isobutyramidine hydrochloride) (AIBA) as initiator at (70 ± 1)°C. The influences of the reaction temperature, the initiator concentration, and comonomer concentration on the polymerization conversion (x %), polymerization rate (R_p) of poly(St/BA/qBVPBr) emulsions were investigated. The results indicated that x % and R_p increase with increasing qBVPBr or AIBA concentration and temperature, and R_p can be expressed as R_p = K_p[AIBA]^0.73[qBVPBr]^0.08 (r_AIBA = 0.9968; r_qBVPBr = 0.9946, both r_AIBA and r_qBVPBr are linear correlation coefficient) and the apparent activation energy (E_a) is 47.89 kJ mol^?1. In the absence of emulsifier condition, curves of R_p versus reaction time obeyed the typical behavior characterized by Intervals I, II, and III as similar conventional emulsion polymerization. The formation and growth of poly(St/BA/qBVPBr) latex particles has been studied at different reaction times. The results indicate that N_p decrease gradually with time at the early polymerization stages and then reach a constant value after about 20% conversion, but D_p by photon correlation spectroscopy grow continuously as all polymerization proceed. Both the particle size distribution and molecular weight distribution curves are of bimodal size distribution and indicate the participation of at least two mechanisms of particle formation, namely, homogeneous nucleation in the aqueous phase and micellar nucleation. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2009     

Superparamagnetic latex synthesized by a new route of emulsifier‐free emulsion polymerization

The aim of this study was to design polymeric nanospheres containing magnetic nanoparticle which could display superparamagnetic behavior and thus find application in allied fields. First magnetite nanoparticles were synthesized with coprecipitation method and then their stable acidic dispersion was prepared without surfactant and dropped into the polymerization system during a certain time interval after the polymerization started. The effects of time at which the magnetic sol was added into polymerization system on latex size and stability, average molecular weight of polymer were examined in the case of two different monomer concentrations. Extensive characterization by transmission electron microscopy, dynamic light scattering, thermal gravimetric analysis and magnetic measurements shows that when the magnetic sol was dropped during earlier time of polymerization at stage 1, the latex size, average molecular weight of polymer, thermal stability of polymeric composite, and saturation magnetization reduced, whereas polydispersity of size and molecular weight increased because of the reaction between persulfate and naked surface of magnetite at the aqueous phase. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2011     

Kinetics studies of two-stage soapless emulsion polymerization of butyl acrylate and methyl methacrylate

In this work, butyl acrylate (BA) and methyl methacrylate (MMA) were used as monomers and K₂S₂O₈ was used as the initiator to study the kinetics of two-stage soapless emulsion polymerization. The first stage of the reaction was to synthesize polyBA (PBA) seeds, and the second stage of the reaction was a seeded polymerization of MMA. The results showed that an increase of initiator concentration would increase the rate of polymerization and the number of polymer particles, but would decrease the size of the polymer particles and the weight-average molecular weight of the polymers. On the other hand, a decrease of the weight ratio of BA/MMA caused a decrease in the reaction rate and the weight-average molecular weight of the polymers in the second stage of the reaction. The morphology of emulsion particles was observed from transmission election microscopy (TEM). The polymer particles were very uniform in size and showed coreshell morphology with PBA as a core and poly MMA (PMMA) as a shell. © 1994 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Ultrasonically initiated free radical‐catalyzed emulsion polymerization of methyl methacrylate (i)

The emulsion polymerization of methyl methacrylate initiated by ultrasound has been studied at ambient temperature using sodium lauryl sulfate as the surfactant. The investigation includes the: (1) nature and source of the free radical for the initiation process; (2) effects of different types of cavitation; and (3) dependence of the polymerization rate, polymer particle number generated, and the polymer molecular weight on acoustic intensity, argon gas flow rate, surfactant concentration, and initial monomer concentration. It was found that the polymerization could be initiated by ultrasound in the emulsion systems containing methyl methacrylate, water, and sodium lauryl sulfate at ambient temperature in the absence of a conventional initiator. The source of the free radical for the initiation process was found to come from the degradation of the sodium lauryl sulfate, presumably in the aqueous phase. The weight average molecular weight of the poly(methyl methacrylate) obtained varied from 2,500,000 to 3,500,000 g mol⁻¹, and the conversion for polymerization was up to 70%. Deviations from the Smith–Ewart kinetics were observed. The polymerization rate was found to be proportional to the acoustic intensity to the 0.98 power; to the argon gas flow rate to the 0.086 power; to the surfactant concentration to the 0.08 power, with the 0.035M–0.139M surfactant concentration range; and to the surfactant concentration to the 0.58 power, with the 0.139M–0.243M surfactant concentration range. The polymerization rate was found to increase with increasing initial monomer concentration up to a point where it became independent of initial monomer concentration. The polymer particle number generated per milliliter of water was found to be proportional to the acoustic intensity to the 1.23 power; to the argon gas flow rate to the 0.16 power; to the surfactant concentration to the 0.3 power, with the 0.035M–0.139M surfactant concentration range; and to the surfactant concentration to the 1.87 power, with the 0.139M–0.243M surfactant concentration range. The polymer weight average molecular weight was found to be proportional to the acoustic intensity to the 0.21 power, and to the argon gas flow rate to the 0.02 power. It was found to be inversely proportional to the surfactant concentration to the 0.12 and 0.34 power, with the 0.035M–0.139M and the 0.139M–0.243M surfactant concentration ranges, respectively. The polymer yield and polymerization rate were found to be much larger than those obtained from an ultrasonically initiated bulk polymerization method. The polymerization rates obtained at ambient temperature were found to be similar to or higher than those obtained from the conventional higher temperature thermal emulsion polymerization method. This investigation demonstrated the capability of ultrasound to both initiate and accelerate polymerization in the emulsion system, and to do this at a lower temperature that could offer substantial energy savings. © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 72: 797–825, 1999     

Ultrasound‐assisted emulsion polymerization of methyl methacrylate and styrene

In this article, we report on the effect of using ultrasound during emulsion polymerization. This work differs somewhat from that previously reported in that ultrasound is used in conjunction with conventional initiators. The aim is to observe the changes in the nature of polymerization and the synthesized polymer. In this work, reaction conditions and compositions typical of conventional emulsion polymerization are used. Azo‐bisisobutyronitrile and potassium per sulfate are the initiators used. The initial indication is that the rate of polymerization and the final conversion are higher when ultrasound is introduced into the polymerization system. This effect is more pronounced at lower temperatures (50°C) and low initiator concentrations (0.01%). At higher temperatures (70°C) the polymerization rate is seemingly unaffected by the use of ultrasound. The final product in all the experiments is a latex. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 76: 101–104, 2000     

Preparation of emulsifier‐free polystyrene by conventional emulsion polymerization with a hydrolysable emulsifier

An alkali‐hydrolyzable surfactant, (1‐tetradecyloxycarbonyl)trimethylammonium chloride, was used as an emulsifier for emulsion polymerization of styrene inwater. The polymerization yielded a high molecular‐weight polymer almost quantitatively. Addition of a small amount of NaOH to the resulting latex solution precipitated the polymer immediately. Analysis of the centrifuged solid indicated almost perfection of both recovery of the polymer and removal of surface‐active species from it. Minimization of ionic species in the polymer solid was confirmed by a high contact angle of the polymer film with water. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2008     

Polymer microgels prepared by emulsifier‐free emulsion polymerization of unsaturated polyesters and styrene

In the present work polymer microgels were prepared by emulsifier‐free emulsion copolymerization of unsaturated polyesters (UPs) with end carboxyl groups and styrene (St). The nucleation mechanism of UP‐St emulsifier‐free emulsion polymerization was proposed. The effects of the ratio of the monomers to water, pH, and the ratio of UP to St on the stability of polymerization and the yield of microgels were studied. It was found that the polymer microgels can be used to markedly improve the impact strength of UP. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 77: 3049–3053, 2000     

Doxorubicin‐loaded poly(butylcyanoacrylate) nanoparticles produced by emulsifier‐free emulsion polymerization

ABSTRACT: Doxorubicin‐loaded poly(butylcyanoacrylate) (PBCA) nanoparticles (NPs) were prepared by an emulsifier‐free emulsion polymerization technique. The pH values of the polymerization medium and the weight ratios of doxorubicin to butylcyanoacrylate had a significant effect on the mean particle size. The particle diameter determined by transmission electron microscopy showed that the nanoparticles were predominantly less than 50 nm. Drug loading and entrapment efficiency increased with increasing pH of the medium. The surface tension of the polymerization media increased with increasing polymerization time and reached a plateau after 4 h. Doxorubicin‐loaded PBCA NPs carried a positive charge, and the zeta potential of drug‐loaded nanoparticles increased with the increase of the polymerization pH. Molecular weight, analyzed by gel permeation chromatography, showed that the nanoparticles mainly consisted of oligomers of PBCA. The release rate of doxorubicin from nanoparticles in biological phosphate buffer was very slow, with a half‐life of 111.43 h. The results indicate that drug‐loaded nanoparticles can be prepared by an emulsifier‐free emulsion polymerization technique and that the resulting nanoparticles might be suitable for targeting drug delivery vehicles for clinical application. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 78: 517–526, 2000     

Synthesis and properties of fluorine–silicon modified polyacrylate hybrid latex particles with core–shell structure obtained via emulsifier‐free emulsion polymerization

A core–shell fluorine–silicon modified polyacrylate hybrid latex was successfully prepared via emulsifier‐free emulsion polymerization. The chemical composition and core–shell morphology of the resultant hybrid particles were investigated using ¹H NMR and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopies and transmission electron microscopy (TEM), respectively. TEM analysis indicated that the core–shell hybrid particles were uniform with narrow size distributions. The particle size and zeta potential decreased with an increase of alkylvinylsulfonate surfactant from 2.5 to 6.0 wt%. X‐ray photoelectron spectroscopy revealed that fluorine concentrated preferentially at the film surface during a film‐formation process. The film formed from the fluorine–silicon modified polyacrylate showed much higher thermal stability than a film formed from polyacrylate and fluorine‐modified polyacrylate. Contact angle results showed that a finished fabric had remarkable water repellency. © 2015 Society of Chemical Industry     

Monodispersed composite particles prepared via emulsifier‐free emulsion polymerization using waterborne polyurethane as microreactors

Monodispersed polystyrene particles in submicrometer size were intriguingly prepared through emulsifier‐free batch‐seeded emulsion polymerization using nonmonodispersed waterborne polyurethane (WBPU) beads as microreactors. Different feed ratios of styrene (St)/WBPU for the preparation of composite particles were investigated, and the size–growth course was experimentally followed. The morphology and dispersity of the particles were characterized by scanning electron microscopy together with dynamic laser scattering particle size analyzer. Their inside structure was further characterized by transmission electron microscopy with ultramicrotomy combined with X‐ray photoelectron spectroscopy for the composite particles' surface analysis. The probable grafting polymerization of St from WBPU was verified by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and nuclear magnetic resonance instrument. The obtained composite particles were again employed as the seeds in the emulsion copolymerization of methyl methacrylate. As a result, the formed multilayered composite particles with reverse core–shell structure were also monodispersed and spherical. The mechanism of the formation of the monodispersed particles was proposed. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2014 , 131, 40985.     

Styrene–butyl acrylate–N,N-dimethyl N-butyl N-methacrylamidino propyl ammonium bromide emulsifier–free emulsion copolymerization

Emulsifier-free emulsion copolymerization of styrene (St) and butyl acrylate (BA) in the presence of cationic functional comonomer N,N-dimethyl N-butyl N-methacrylamidino propyl ammonium bromide (DBMPAB) was carried out using azobis(isobutylamidine hydrochloride) (AIBA) as initiator. The surface properties of particles were studied by testing the actual value of -N⁺ and -C⁺(NH₂)₂ (Publisher's note: for graphical representations please see printed journal or the Acrobat PDF version on this website.) on the surface of particles and the surface charge density. The copolymer particles were characterized by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The effects of reaction temperature, DBMPAB content, AIBA content, and ionic strength on conversion of monomer, average diameter D _w) and number (N_p) of copolymer particles were investigated. Under constant ionic strength the average diameter of copolymer particles (D_w) decreased with increasing AIBA and DBMPAB concentration, and decreased with rising reaction temperature. At constant concentration of comonomer and initiator and constant monomer composition, D_w showed an increase–decrease–increase with ionic strength plot. The polymerization rate increased with increasing DBMPAB content, AIBA content and rising temperature. The surface charge properties of particles were mainly decided by DBMPAB content, AIBA content, and ionic strength. ©1997 SCI     

Preparation of polystyrene/poly(vinyl acetate) nanocomposites with a core–shell structure via emulsifier‐free emulsion polymerization

Polystyrene/poly(vinyl acetate) latex nanoparticles with a core–shell morphology in an emulsifier‐free emulsion polymerization system were prepared with purified styrene and vinyl acetate (VAc) as monomers and 2,2′‐azo bis(2‐amino propane) dihydrochloride (ABA,2HCl) as the initiator and emulsifier. The optimized conditions of polymerization of VAc, on top of the already‐formed polystyrene as a core polymer, with a core–shell morphology were obtained using various parameters such as volume ratio of the first and second stages, type of process, and reaction time. The morphologic structure of the nanoparticles was studied by scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy. The latex nanoparticles and polymers were characterized by differential scanning calorimetry. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 100: 2409–2414, 2006     

双官能团引发剂引发甲基丙烯酸甲酯的聚合速率

研究了双官能团引发剂2,5-双(2-乙基己酰过氧化)-2,5-二甲基己烷（TX-141）引发甲基丙烯酸甲酯（MMA）的自由基聚合动力学,考察了引发剂浓度、聚合温度对聚合动力学的影响.结果表明：该体系的聚合活化能为91 kJ•mol^-1左右,计算得到TX-141引发剂的分解活化能为140 kJ•mol^-1左右,与实验值接近;TX-141引发剂的反应级数约为0.72,说明MMA聚合终止基元反应中单基和双基终止并存.同时与相似半衰期的过氧化二苯甲酰（BPO）比较,发现当TX-141引发剂浓度为BPO的1/2时,两者在各个聚合温度下的聚合动力学曲线几乎相同;但相对分子质量有明显增加,随聚合转化率增加,TX-141与BPO引发的聚合物数均分子量之比从1.2变化到1.33;由TX-141引发的聚合物低转化率时DSC曲线出现放热峰,而高转化率以及BPO引发的聚合物则没有.说明双官能团引发剂TX-141引发聚合时,在低转化率下TX-141引发剂的2个过氧键没有全部断裂,随聚合进行,断裂程度加深.     

The manganic hydroxide–hydrazine system as an initiator of vinyl polymerization. III. The emulsion polymerization of methyl methacrylate

Emulsion polymerization of methyl methacrylate with the manganic hydroxide–hydrazine system has been studied. An attempt was made to corroborate earlier evidence that the initiation may involve a surface reaction on an insoluble manganese compound. The surface area of the manganic hydroxide was varied, and the effect of this variation on the rate of decomposition of hydrazine was examined. A correlation was found between the polymerization rate and the surface area of the precipitate.     

The manganic hydroxide–hydrazine system as an initiator of vinyl polymerization. IV. The emulsion polymerization of methyl methacrylate

The behavior of the emulsifier sodium dodecyl sulfate and electrolyte sodium hydroxide was studied at the oxidation stage and beyond in the emulsion polymerization of methyl methacrylate initiated by the manganic hydroxide–hydrazine hydrate system. From the rate of polymerization and from the adsorption of hydrazine it was shown that addition of emulsifier is more effective at the oxidation stage than after. But the reverse is obtained with the electrolyte. The effect of hydrazine concentration was also studied. The results are explained on the basis of a surface reaction between hydrazine hydrate and the insoluble manganic hydroxide.     

The manganic hydroxide–hydrazine system as an initiator of vinyl polymerization. II. The emulsion polymerization of methyl methacrylate

The reaction between hydrazine hydrate and manganic hydroxide has been studied as an initiator for the emulsion polymerization of methyl methacrylate. The system has proved to be effective, and polymerization occurs at favorable rates over a wide temperature range extending from below 10°C to over 50°C. The pH range, however, is rather limited, the most effective value being 9. The main features of the initiator's behavior are similar to those found previously in the corresponding solution polymerization and are explained on the basis of a surface reaction between the hydrazine and the insoluble hydroxide. A complicating feature is the reaction between hydrazine and monomer, which exerts an inhibiting influence.     

无皂乳液制备PMMA动力学及其模型

以甲基丙烯酸甲酯(MMA)为单体、过硫酸钾(KPS)为引发剂进行无皂乳液聚合反应,考察了单体MMA浓度、引发剂KPS用量及聚合温度对其动力学行为的影响。建立了转化率-时间关系曲线的模型函数———Gamm a积分函数,用它拟合了转化率-时间关系曲线,获得了聚合过程的重要特征参数,如平均成核速率,聚合最大速率和平稳期平均聚合速率及成核结束和聚合进入完成期对应的转化率。同时对聚合速率与以上各聚合参数的关系数据进行了非线性拟合,得到了它们之间的关系式。拟合相关系数非常接近于1,平均拟合误差很小,成核结束时转化率在15%以内,聚合速率随以上参数增大而增大,反应温度在聚合过程中起决定作用。