A meta-analytic review of research on gender differences in sexuality, 1993–2007.

In 1993 Oliver and Hyde conducted a meta-analysis on gender differences in sexuality. The current study updated that analysis with current research and methods. Evolutionary psychology, cognitive social learning theory, social structural theory, and the gender similarities hypothesis provided predictions about gender differences in sexuality. We analyzed gender differences in 30 reported sexual behaviors and attitudes for 834 individual samples uncovered in literature searches and 7 large national data sets. In support of evolutionary psychology, results from both the individual studies and the large data sets indicated that men reported slightly more sexual experience and more permissive attitudes than women for most of the variables. However, as predicted by the gender similarities hypothesis, most gender differences in sexual attitudes and behaviors were small. Exceptions were masturbation incidence, pornography use, casual sex, and attitudes toward casual sex, which all yielded medium effect sizes in which male participants reported more sexual behavior or permissive attitudes than female participants. Most effect sizes reported in the current study were comparable to those reported in Oliver and Hyde’s study. In support of cognitive social learning theory, year of publication moderated the magnitude of effect sizes, with gender differences for some aspects of sexuality increasing over time and others decreasing. As predicted by social structural theory, nations and ethnic groups with greater gender equity had smaller gender differences for some reported sexual behaviors than nations and ethnic groups with less gender equity. Gender differences decreased with age of the sample for some sexual behaviors and attitudes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender differences in erotic plasticity: The female sex drive as socially flexible and responsive.

Responding to controversies about the balance between nature and culture in determining human sexuality, the author proposes that the female sex drive is more malleable than the male in response to sociocultural and situational factors. A large assortment of evidence supports 3 predictions based on the hypothesis of female erotic plasticity: (a) Individual women will exhibit more variation across time than men in sexual behavior, (b) female sexuality will exhibit larger effects than male in response to most specific sociocultural variables, and (c) sexual attitude-behavior consistency will be lower for women than men. Several possible explanations for female erotic plasticity are reviewed, including adaptation to superior male political and physical power, the centrality of female change (from no to yes) as a prerequisite for intercourse, and the idea that women have a milder sex drive than men. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Erotic transference through countertransference: The female therapist and the male patient.

Explores the female clinician's countertransference as the primary limiting factor in sexual transference. The female therapist, who may be unconsciously fearful of losing a boundary or being violated, may afford her male patient a less than optimal chance of understanding the shame attendant to his sexuality or the aggression that may be associated with it. Although sexual transference is the entree into the patient's psychic life, sexual countertransference is anathema, a double standard that is now coming under fire. Two cases are described in which men develop strong sexual transferences and engender stong countertransferences in return. Although these men were sexually overstimulated as children and possibly abused, the processes they undergo may be extrapolated to other male patient–female clinician dyads. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Within-group differences in sexual orientation and identity.

The purpose of this investigation was to examine within-group differences among self-identified sexual orientation and identity groups. To understand these within-group differences, 2 types of analysis were conducted. First, a sample of 2,732 participants completed the Sexual Orientation and Identity Scale. Cluster analyses were used to identify 3 types of bisexual women, 3 types of bisexual men, 2 types of heterosexual women, and 2 types of gay men. Lesbians and heterosexual men were clustered into singular groupings. In addition, a subsample of 838 participants also completed measures of sexual identity development and lesbian, gay, and bisexual knowledge and attitudes. Within-group differences were found for bisexual men and women, gay men, and heterosexual women along these dimensions. Findings supported the existence of distinct subgroups of bisexual men, bisexual women, gay men, and heterosexual women. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Response of large and small vessels to alpha and beta adrenoceptor stimulation in heart failure: effect of angiotensin converting enzyme inhibition

Understanding sexual fantasies is important to the scientific study of human sexuality. A sexual fantasy refers to a private or covert experience in which the imagination of desirable sexual activity with a partner is sexually arousing to the individual. Prior sexual experiences of an individual appear to increase the incidence of sexual fantasies, as well as the variety of sexual themes in a fantasy, which permit a greater elaboration of the fantasy theme when compared to less sexually experienced individuals. The present study was an investigation of the factors or sexual themes that emerge in a college male population, as well as a comparison of college men with human samples obtained in other studies: a sample of men and women and a sample of sexually variant men. In this study, 116 male students, all of whom identified themselves as heterosexual, completed the Wilson Sex Fantasy Questionnaire (WSFQ). Results indicated that the present sample had significantly more exploratory, intimate, impersonal, and total sexual fantasies than sexual fantasies reported by female respondents in another study using the WSFQ and significantly more intimate, impersonal, and total sexual fantasizing when compared with a male sample in another study. The men in this study also evidenced less deviant areas of sexual fantasizing when compared with a group of sexually variant men in another study. A principal components analysis extracted four factors, which accounted for 45% of the total variance. The four sexual fantasy topic areas for the most part replicated prior findings by Wilson (1988) but are also more heterogeneous, indicating that male college students engage in a variety of sexual fantasies but seem to favor more intimate, less deviant or exploratory sexual themes that are in line with nonclinical samples and different from several clinical samples of sexually variant men.     

How do people evaluate social sexual conduct at work?: A psycholegal model.

The authors tested a psycholegal model of how people evaluate social sexual conduct at work with videotaped reenactments of interviews with alleged complainants, perpetrators, and other workers. Participants (200 full-time male and female workers) were randomly assigned to evaluate the complaints with either the reasonable person or reasonable woman legal standard. Participants answered questions about sexual harassment law and completed the Ambivalent Sexism Inventory. Participants who took the reasonable woman perspective, as compared with those who took the reasonable person perspective, were more likely to find the conduct harassing; this was especially the case among participants high in hostile Sexism. Medium-sized gender effects were found in the severe case but were absent in the weaker, more ambiguous case. The implications of these findings for hostile work environment law are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder: A quantitative review of 25 years of research.

Meta-analyses of studies yielding sex-specific risk of potentially traumatic events (PTEs) and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) indicated that female participants were more likely than male participants to meet criteria for PTSD, although they were less likely to experience PTEs. Female participants were more likely than male participants to experience sexual assault and child sexual abuse, but less likely to experience accidents, nonsexual assaults, witnessing death or injury, disaster or fire, and combat or war. Among victims of specific PTEs (excluding sexual assault or abuse), female participants exhibited greater PTSD. Thus, sex differences in risk of exposure to particular types of PTE can only partially account for the differential PTSD risk in male and female participants. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Adolescent sexual risk-taking behavior in single-parent ethnic minority families.

Relationships of maternal sexual behavior, mother-adolescent communication about sex, and maternal attitudes about adolescent sexuality to adolescent sexual risk-taking behavior were examined in a sample of 397 Black and Hispanic families headed by single mothers. Some support emerged for a positive relationship between maternal sexual risk-taking behavior and adolescent risk-taking behavior; however, when considered in the context of communication about sex and maternal attitudes about adolescent sexuality, the relationship was no longer significant. When the process of sexual communication between a mother and an adolescent was open and receptive, less adolescent risk-taking behavior was reported. The role of single mothers in influencing their adolescents' sexual behavior is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Overworked and underpaid: On the nature of gender differences in personal entitlement.

Two experiments tested the hypothesis that women's internal standards of fair pay for their work are lower than men's and examined possible causes of this difference. In Exp I, 36 male and 40 female undergraduates were asked to pay themselves in a private situation what they thought was fair pay for a fixed amount of work. Social comparison information was varied. As predicted, females paid themselves less money than males in the absence, but not the presence, of social comparison information. In Exp II, 40 males and 40 females were asked to do as much work as they thought was fair for a fixed, prepaid amount of money. Ss believed that their work was either monitored or unmonitored. Females worked significantly longer, did more work, and did more correct work than males in both public and private work settings. Females, but not males, worked longer when they believed their work was monitored than when they believed it was unmonitored. It is suggested that individuals tend to base their behavior on comparisons with same-sex reference groups in the absence of salient comparison others. (40 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Was it a phase? Young women's relinquishment of lesbian/bisexual identities over a 5-year period.

There have been many anecdotal accounts of individuals who self-identify as lesbian, gay, or bisexual only to relinquish these identities later. The current study examines this phenomenon among a sample of young nonheterosexual women who underwent 3 interviews over a 5-year period. Over a quarter of the women relinquished their lesbian/bisexual identities during this period: half reclaimed heterosexual identities and half gave up all identity labels. These women did not differ from those who maintained lesbian/bisexual identities regarding the age at which they underwent sexual identity milestones, the factors that precipitated their sexual questioning, or their recollection of childhood "indicators" same-sex sexuality. Women who relinquished their identities for heterosexual identities had small ratios of same-sex to other-sex attractions across the 5-year assessment period, but their attractions did not significantly change. Only 1 woman described her previous same-sex identification as a phase; the rest emphasized changes in how they interpreted or acted on their attractions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Beyond the birds and the bees and was it good for you?: Thirty years of research on sexual communication.

Sexual experience and expression is of fundamental importance to most people. However, most people do not communicate effectively about sexuality even when it is important to do so. For example, many parents see it as their responsibility to talk to their children about sexuality and yet do not engage in in-depth discussions with their children about sexual topics. Most romantic partners have difficulty telling each other what pleases and displeases them sexually. Many health care professionals do not meet their patients' needs for information about the sexual changes they experience as a result of their disease or treatment. Many psychologists also are not doing a good job of addressing sexuality in the classroom, in practicum and internship settings, and/or with clients. These instances of poor sexual communication are unfortunate as effective sexual communication can have a range of positive outcomes such as more satisfying relationships and positive sexual health and well-being over the life span. This paper reviews sexual communication in all of these contexts, focusing on findings from my program of research spanning more than 30 years. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Women's history of sexual abuse, their sexuality, and sexual self-schemas.

In this study, the authors assessed 48 female survivors of child sexual abuse (CSA) and 71 female control participants using measures of adult sexual function, psychological function (i.e., depression and anxiety), and sexual self-schemas. The primary purpose of this study was to examine whether differences existed between women with and without a history of CSA in the way that they viewed themselves as a sexual person and, if so, whether such differences mediated the link between early unwanted sexual experiences and later adult sexuality. CSA survivors were found to view themselves as less romantic and passionate than women who were not abused. In particular, CSA survivors showed an inverse relationship between romantic/passionate sexual self-schemas and negative sexual affect during sexual arousal. The relationship between CSA and negative sexual affect was independent from symptoms of depression and anxiety, suggesting that the impact of CSA on sexual self-schemas may be independent from the impact that the abuse may have in other areas of the survivor's life. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychosexual development of women with congenital adrenal hyperplasia

Women with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) (N = 31) and their unaffected sisters or female cousins (N = 15) participated in a study of psychosexual development. All participants were > or = 18 years of age (mean age, 25 years; range, 18-40). Comparisons were also made between the CAH women with the salt-wasting (SW) form of the disorder and those with simple virilization (SV). A psychosexual assessment protocol examined six variables: (1) sex assignment at birth (probands only); (2) recalled sex-typed behavior during childhood; (3) gender identity and gender role identification in adulthood; (4) relationship status; (5) sexual orientation in fantasy; and (6) sexual orientation in behavior. Salt-wasting status and sex assignment at birth were also ascertained for the CAH women who either refused to participate in the study (N = 10) or could not be traced (N = 13). Compared to the controls, the women with CAH recalled more cross-gender role behavior and less comfort with their sense of "femininity" during childhood. The two groups did not differ in degree of gender dysphoria in adulthood, although the probands showed more cross-gender role identification. Three of the nonparticipant probands were living, as adults, in the male social role (2 reared from birth as boys and 1 who changed from the female to the male social role during adolescence). The CAH women and the controls did not differ in relationship status (married/cohabiting vs. single). The CAH women had lower rates of exclusive heterosexual fantasy and fewer sexual experiences with men than the controls; however, the CAH women did not have more sexual experiences with women than the controls. Comparisons between the SW and SV revealed several differences: the SW were less likely to be assigned to the female sex at birth, recalled more cross-gender role behavior during childhood, were less likely to be married or cohabiting, and had lower rates of sexual experiences with men. The results were discussed in relation to the effects of prenatal androgens on psychosexual differentiation.     

Attitudes towards homosexuality and male and female reactions to homosexual and heterosexual slides.

Investigated the relationship between attitudes toward male and female homosexuality and Ss' reactions to slides of various explicit sexual activities (including homosexuality, lesbianism, heterosexual activity, and group sex). Attitudes toward homosexuality and lesbianism were highly correlated. Saskatchewan males were more antihomosexual than an Ontario sample, supporting the suggestion that there is greater concern with "machismo" among males on the Prairies. 34 male and 31 female undergraduates were divided into those opposed to homosexuality (anti-H) and those not opposed (H-neutral) on the basis of attitude scale scores. While the 4 groups substantially agreed in the relative rating of the slides, anti-H Ss of both sexes rated the slides as more pornographic and evaluated them more negatively than H-neutral Ss. Females rated them more negatively than males, while males rated all but the male themes (male nude, masturbation, homosexual) more sexually arousing than did females. Males reacted more negatively to the male themes than to the comparable female themes. Female Ss showed no such difference. (French summary) (1 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A follow-up study of girls with gender identity disorder.

This study provided information on the natural histories of 25 girls with gender identity disorder (GID). Standardized assessment data in childhood (mean age, 8.88 years; range, 3-12 years) and at follow-up (mean age, 23.24 years; range, 15-36 years) were used to evaluate gender identity and sexual orientation. At the assessment in childhood, 60% of the girls met the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders criteria for GID, and 40% were subthreshold for the diagnosis. At follow-up, 3 participants (12%) were judged to have GID or gender dysphoria. Regarding sexual orientation, 8 participants (32%) were classified as bisexual/homosexual in fantasy, and 6 (24%) were classified as bisexual/homosexual in behavior. The remaining participants were classified as either heterosexual or asexual. The rates of GID persistence and bisexual/homosexual sexual orientation were substantially higher than base rates in the general female population derived from epidemiological or survey studies. There was some evidence of a "dosage" effect, with girls who were more cross-sex typed in their childhood behavior more likely to be gender dysphoric at follow-up and more likely to have been classified as bisexual/homosexual in behavior (but not in fantasy). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Math = male, me = female, therefore math ≠ me.

College students, especially women, demonstrated negativity toward math and science relative to arts and language on implicit measures. Group membership (being female), group identity (self = female), and gender stereotypes (math = male) were related to attitudes and identification with mathematics. Stronger implicit math = male stereotypes corresponded with more negative implicit and explicit math attitudes for women but more positive attitudes for men. Associating the self with female and math with male made it difficult for women, even women who had selected math-intensive majors, to associate math with the self. These results point to the opportunities and constraints on personal preferences that derive from membership in social groups. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Mostly straight" young women: Variations in sexual behavior and identity development.

Researchers have begun to explore and identify various gradations in sexual orientation identity, paying attention to alternative sexual identity categories and attempting to clarify potential subtypes of same-sex sexuality, particularly among women. This study utilizes both quantitative and qualitative data to explore the behavioral experiences and identity development processes among women of a particular sexual identity subtype, "mostly straight." Participants were 349 female college students whose primary sexual identities included exclusively straight, mostly straight, bisexual, and lesbian. Results indicated that, on most behavioral variables, mostly straight women fell directly between and were significantly different from exclusively straight and bisexual/lesbian women. Mostly straight women were also distinct from exclusively straight women but were similar to bisexual women and lesbians on several quantitative measures of identity. Narratives about sexual identity development for mostly straight women revealed the complexities of sexual identity exploration, uncertainty, and commitment within this population. As a whole, this study encourages researchers to begin to recognize and examine mostly straight as a distinct sexual identity subtype in young women. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of anticipatory stress on decision making in a gambling task.

Recent research has highlighted the fact that emotion that is intrinsic to a task benefits decision making. The authors tested the converse hypothesis, that unrelated emotion disrupts decision making. Participants played the Iowa Gambling Task, during which only experimental participants anticipated giving a public speech (A. Bechara, D. Tranel, & H. Damasio, 2000). Experimental participants who were anticipating the speech learned the contingencies of the choices more slowly, and there was a gender interaction later in the game, with stressed female participants having more explicit knowledge and more advantageous performance and stressed male participants having poorer explicit knowledge and less advantageous performance. Effects of anticipatory stress on decision making are complex and depend on both the nature of the task and the individual. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Tobacco, marijuana, and sensation seeking: Comparisons across gay, lesbian, bisexual, and heterosexual groups.

This study examined patterns of smoked substances (cigarettes and marijuana) among heterosexuals, gays, lesbians, and bisexuals based on data from the 2000 National Alcohol Survey, a population-based telephone survey of adults in the United States. We also examined the effect of bar patronage and sensation seeking/impulsivity (SSImp) on tobacco and marijuana use. Sexual orientation was defined as lesbian or gay self-identified, bisexual self-identified, heterosexual self-identified with same-sex partners in the past 5 years, and exclusively heterosexual (heterosexual self-identified, reporting no same-sex partners). Findings indicate that bisexual women and heterosexual women reporting same-sex partners had higher rates of cigarette smoking than exclusively heterosexual women. Bisexual women, lesbians, and heterosexual women with same-sex partners also used marijuana at significantly higher rates than exclusively heterosexual women. Marijuana use was significantly greater and tobacco use was elevated among gay men compared with heterosexual men. SSImp was associated with greater use of both of these substances across nearly all groups. Bar patronage and SSImp did not buffer the relationship between sexual identity and smoking either cigarettes or marijuana. These findings suggest that marijuana and tobacco use differ by sexual identity, particularly among women, and underscore the importance of developing prevention and treatment services that are appropriate for sexual minorities. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sexual expression and dementia. Views of caregivers: A pilot study

OBJECTIVE: To measure the attitudes of health professionals in nursing homes towards sexuality and sexual expression in cognitively impaired and cognitively intact residents. DESIGN: Postal survey. PARTICIPANTS: The staff (administrators, clinicians, social workers and others) of 300 randomly selected nursing homes located in three states. Of these, 114 representatives responded. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: A measure of attitudes towards resident sexuality developed during a prior study. RESULTS: Results suggest that respondents held a generally positive orientation towards residents' sexual expression which was expressed with respect to cognitively impaired residents as well as to those who were cognitively intact. Possibly because of the small sample size and resulting low statistical power, statistical analyses failed to demonstrate any significant differences among the groups of residents: administrators, clinicians, social workers, and undifferentiated 'others'. However, while non-significant, there was a consistent tendency for administrators to be relatively more conservative than were the other groups. Almost all respondents agreed that additional staff training should focus specifically on dealing with resident sexual expression. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, the sample reported generally positive attitudes towards resident sexuality and sexual expression.