Fluctuations of sex-related self-attributions as a function of stage of family life cycle.

In a cross-sectional study, sex-related self-attributions of 426 women and 378 men were assessed at 8 stages in the family life cycle. It was hypothesized that sex differences are not fixed in adulthood but fluctuate according to the demand characteristics of various life situations. Factor analysis of the Bem Sex-Role Inventory yielded 9 factors, providing a more precise evaluation of how desirable and undesirable aspects of instrumentality and expressivity vary throughout adulthood. The majority of effects were related to stage of family life and not age. On 1-way ANOVA, compassion and tenderness showed stage-of-life effects for both sexes, but autonomy and leadership showed effects only for men. Cross-sex-typed attributes were prominent during grandparenthood, with a rise in expressiveness for men and a rise in autonomy for women. Men were more autonomous and less acquiescent than women during expectancy and young parenthood but not at other stages. Women showed more tenderness than men at all stages except among the married-childless and grandparents. There were few sex differences across the different states of life in nonassertiveness and social inhibitions. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Is the gap more than gender? A longitudinal analysis of gender, gender role orientation, and earnings.

This study investigated the relationships among gender, gender role orientation (i.e., attitudes toward the gendered separation of roles at work and at home), and earnings. A multilevel model was conceptualized in which gender role orientation and earnings were within-individual variables that fluctuate over time (although predictors of between-individual differences in gender role orientation were also considered). Results indicated that whereas traditional gender role orientation was positively related to earnings, gender significantly predicted the slope of this relationship: Traditional gender role orientation was strongly positively associated with earnings for men; it was slightly negatively associated with earnings for women. Occupational segregation partly explained these gender differences. Overall, the results suggest that although gender role attitudes are becoming less traditional for men and for women, traditional gender role orientation continues to exacerbate the gender wage gap. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender differences and developmental change in externalizing disorders from late adolescence to early adulthood: A longitudinal twin study.

Using data from over 1,000 male and female twins participating in the Minnesota Twin Family Study, the authors examined developmental change, gender differences, and genetic and environmental contributions to the symptom levels of four externalizing disorders (adult antisocial behavior, alcohol dependence, nicotine dependence, and drug dependence) from ages 17 to 24. Both men and women increased in symptoms for each externalizing disorder, with men increasing at a greater rate than women, such that a modest gender gap at age 17 widened to a large one at age 24. Additionally, a mean-level gender difference on a latent Externalizing factor could account for the mean-level gender differences for the individual disorders. Biometric analyses revealed increasing genetic variation and heritability for men but a trend toward decreasing genetic variation and increasing environmental effects for women. Results illustrate the importance of gender and developmental context for symptom expression and the utility of structural models to integrate general trends and disorder-specific characteristics. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender differences in domain-specific self-esteem: A meta-analysis.

This meta-analysis examines gender differences in 10 specific domains of self-esteem across 115 studies, including 428 effect sizes and 32,486 individuals. In a mixed-effects analysis, men scored significantly higher than women on physical appearance (d = 0.35), athletic (d = 0.41), personal self (d = 0.28), and self-satisfaction self-esteem (d = 0.33). Women scored higher than men on behavioral conduct (d = ?0.17) and moral–ethical self-esteem (d = ?0.38). The gender difference in physical appearance self-esteem was significant only after 1980 and was largest among adults. No significant gender differences appeared in academic, social acceptance, family, and affect self-esteem. The results demonstrate the influence of reflected appraisals on self-esteem. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Correlates of expressed and received violence across relationship types among men and women substance abusers.

This study examined expressed and received violence among men and women in substance abuse treatment. Rates of past-year partner violence (PV) did not differ by gender, although men reported markedly higher rates of nonpartner violence (NPV). Compared with PV, NPV was associated with more demographic and background factors (e.g., childhood aggression and conduct problems, family history of violence). The most consistent correlates of violence across relationship types were age, minority status, drug-related consequences, psychiatric distress, and frequency of childhood aggression. Only a few gender-specific correlated were identified; most notably, witnessing father-to-mother violence was related to received PV only for women. Identification of correlates of expressed and received violence in partner and nonpartner relationships is essential for the assessment and treatment of individuals in substance abuse treatment settings. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Alcohol involvement and dysphoria: A longitudinal examination of gender differences from late adolescence to adulthood.

Although numerous investigations have examined the relations between alcoholism and depression, differing results have emerged. Major limitations in existing work are that it uses clinical samples and is cross-sectional in nature. Using prospective data from a community sample assessed during 3 developmental periods (late adolescence, young adulthood, and adulthood), these complex relations were examined with structural equation modeling. Results show distinct gender differences between alcohol involvement and dysphoria. For women these 2 processes were related from late adolescence to adulthood, and this relation was reflected in a higher order construct that was stable over time. For men alcohol involvement and dysphoria were unrelated during late adolescence but converged over time. Reciprocal relations between alcohol involvement and dysphoria were found for both men and women. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Prevalences of intimate partner violence in a representative U.S. Air Force sample.

Objective: Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a serious health concern, but little is known about prevalence of IPV in the armed forces, as military members cope with the pressures of long-standing operations. Furthermore, previous prevalence studies have been plagued by definitional issues; most studies have focused on acts of aggression without consideration of impact (clinically significant [CS] IPV). This is the first large-scale study to examine prevalences of IPV, CS-IPV, and clinically significant emotional abuse (CS-EA) for men and women. Method: A United States Air Force-wide anonymous survey was administered across 82 bases in 2006 (N = 42,744) to assess IPV, CS-IPV, and CS-EA. Results: The adjusted prevalence of CS-IPV perpetration was 4.66% for men and 3.54% for women. Prevalences of IPV perpetration were 12.90% for men and 15.14% for women. CS-EA victimization was 6.00% for men and 8.50% for women. Sociodemographic differences in risk for violence were found for gender, race/ethnicity, pay grade, religious faith, marital status, and career type even after controlling for other demographic variables. Conclusions: Partner maltreatment is widespread in military (and civilian) samples. Men were more likely to perpetrate CS-IPV, whereas women were more likely to perpetrate IPV. Specific demographic risk factors were identified for different types of partner maltreatment (e.g., lower rank predicted higher risk for both perpetration and victimization across men and women). Other sociodemographic differences varied across severity (IPV vs. CS-IPV) and across gender. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Adulthood functioning: the joint effects of parental alcoholism, gender and childhood socio-economic stress

The popular literature has publicized the adjustment difficulties of adult children of an alcohol-dependent parent (ACOAs); however, empirical studies do not provide consistent support. We examined the impact of parental alcoholism, degree of childhood socio-economic stress and gender on three broad categories of adulthood functioning (psychopathology, socio-economic attainment and marital stability). These effects were investigated with a heterogeneous sample of 400 men and 226 women participating in studies at the University of Michigan Alcohol Research Center. Parental alcoholism and childhood socio-economic stress exerted significant independent effects on most adulthood functioning measures. Men and women differed substantially only on socio-economic attainment measures, and effects of parental alcoholism and childhood economic stress on men and women were generally similar. For marital stability, parental alcoholism and childhood socio-economic stress interacted. These results suggest that researchers who study the impact of family history for alcoholism on psychological functioning should consider other aspects of the family of origin that promote wellbeing. In addition, results of this study point to the need for more research on gender differences, protective factors that promote good adjustment and outcome measures reflecting general life adaptation.     

Gender and sexual orientation differences in sexual response to sexual activities versus gender of actors in sexual films.

In this study, the authors investigated the hypothesis that women's sexual orientation and sexual responses in the laboratory correlate less highly than do men's because women respond primarily to the sexual activities performed by actors, whereas men respond primarily to the gender of the actors. The participants were 20 homosexual women, 27 heterosexual women, 17 homosexual men, and 27 heterosexual men. The videotaped stimuli included men and women engaging in same-sex intercourse, solitary masturbation, or nude exercise (no sexual activity); human male-female copulation; and animal (bonobo chimpanzee or Pan paniscus) copulation. Genital and subjective sexual arousal were continuously recorded. The genital responses of both sexes were weakest to nude exercise and strongest to intercourse. As predicted, however, actor gender was more important for men than for women, and the level of sexual activity was more important for women than for men. Consistent with this result, women responded genitally to bonobo copulation, whereas men did not. An unexpected result was that homosexual women responded more to nude female targets exercising and masturbating than to nude male targets, whereas heterosexual women responded about the same to both sexes at each activity level. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Work preferences, life values, and personal views of top math/science graduate students and the profoundly gifted: Developmental changes and gender differences during emerging adulthood and parenthood.

Work preferences, life values, and personal views of top math/science graduate students (275 men, 255 women) were assessed at ages 25 and 35 years. In Study 1, analyses of work preferences revealed developmental changes and gender differences in priorities: Some gender differences increased over time and increased more among parents than among childless participants, seemingly because the mothers’ priorities changed. In Study 2, gender differences in the graduate students’ life values and personal views at age 35 were compared with those of profoundly gifted participants (top 1 in 10,000, identified by age 13 and tracked for 20 years: 265 men, 84 women). Again, gender differences were larger among parents. Across both cohorts, men appeared to assume a more agentic, career-focused perspective than women did, placing more importance on creating high-impact products, receiving compensation, taking risks, and gaining recognition as the best in their fields. Women appeared to favor a more communal, holistic perspective, emphasizing community, family, friendships, and less time devoted to career. Gender differences in life priorities, which intensify during parenthood, anticipated differential male-female representation in high-level and time-intensive careers, even among talented men and women with similar profiles of abilities, vocational interests, and educational experiences. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Stress exposure and affective modulation of aggressive behavior in men and women.

To study differences in the effects of stress exposure and affective responding on aggression in men and women, the authors examined the effects of an acute stressor (air blast) on subsequent aggressive behavior, measured as the intensity of shocks men and women delivered to a putative employee. The authors measured participants' affective responding using the startle reflex. Results showed that although men and women did not differ in their startle responses to the actual stressor, high stress led to contrasting patterns of subsequent aggressive behavior. Women under high stress responded with less aggression than women under low stress, whereas men exposed to high stress exhibited increases in aggression relative to those under low stress. Affective responding during the stressor differentially modulated aggression in men and women: Startle responses predicted increasing levels of aggression in men and less aggression in women. These findings suggest that although men and women show similar basic affective processing in response to stressors, the behavioral profiles associated with stress differ in men and women. These findings have implications for understanding gender differences in the prevalence of internalizing and externalizing psychopathology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Personality Disorder Traits During Adolescence and Relationships With Family Members During the Transition to Adulthood.

Data from the Children in the Community Transitions Study, a prospective longitudinal investigation, were used to examine the association between adolescent personality disorder (PD) traits and conflict with family members during the transition to adulthood. PD traits at mean age 16 years were associated with elevated contact and conflict with family members between ages 17 and 27 years after Axis I disorders were controlled. There was a significant association between frequent contact and elevated conflict with family members. Both declined gradually during the transition to adulthood. Reduced family contact was associated with reduced family conflict, particularly among individuals who had numerous PD traits during adolescence. Among individuals who had a high level of family conflict during adolescence, reduced family contact between ages 17 and 22 years was associated with a subsequent reduction in conflict with family members between ages 22 and 27 years. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender differences in life events prior to onset of major depressive disorder: The moderating effect of age.

Theoretical models attempting to explain why approximately twice as many women as men suffer from depression often involve the role of stressful life events. However, detailed empirical evidence regarding gender differences in rates of life events that precede onset of depression is lacking, due in part to the common use of checklist assessments of stress that have been shown to possess poor validity. The present study reports on a combined sample of 375 individuals drawn from 4 studies in which all participants were diagnosed with major depressive disorder and assessed with the Life Events and Difficulties Schedule (Bifulco et al., 1989), a state-of-the-art contextual interview and life stress rating system. Women reported significantly more severe and nonsevere, independent and dependent, and other-focused and subject-focused life events prior to onset of depression than did men. Further, these relations were significantly moderated by age, such that gender differences in rates of most types of events were found primarily in young adulthood. These results are discussed in term of their implications for understanding the etiological role of stressful life events in depression. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender differences in acute alcohol effects on self-regulation of arousal in response to emotional and alcohol-related picture cues.

Basic mechanisms through which men and women self-regulate arousal have received little attention in human experimental addiction research, although stress-response-dampening and craving theories suggest an important role of emotional arousal in motivating alcohol use. This study examined gender differences in the effects of acute alcohol intoxication on psychophysiological and self-reported arousal in response to emotionally negative, positive, and neutral, and alcohol-related, picture cues. Thirty-six social drinkers (16 women) were randomly assigned to an alcohol, placebo, or control beverage group and exposed to picture cues every 10 s (0.1 Hz presentation frequency). Psychophysiological arousal was assessed via a 0.1-Hz heart rate variability (HRV) index. A statistically significant beverage group-by-gender interaction effect on psychophysiological, but not self-reported, arousal was found. The 0.1-Hz HRV responses to picture cues were suppressed by alcohol only in men. This gender-specific suppression pattern did not differ significantly across picture cue types. There were no significant gender differences in the placebo or control group. Greater dampening of arousal by alcohol intoxication in men, compared with women, may contribute to men’s greater tendency to use alcohol to cope with stress. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Current and past depression as predictors of family functioning: A comparison of men and women in a community sample.

The association between family functioning and parental depression has primarily been studied in samples of women. In particular, very little research exists that examines how parent gender and past diagnoses of depression are related to family functioning. The family relationships of 469 couples from a community sample were examined using self- and partner report measures of the marital relationship and youth report and interviewer-rated measures of the parent-youth relationship. Both currently and formerly depressed men and women were shown to have poorer family functioning than nondepressed and never depressed individuals, respectively. Interactions of gender and depression status indicated that depression and poorer marital functioning were more strongly related for women than for men, but there were few gender differences in the parent-youth relationship. The results highlight the need for further research on men's family functioning and suggest that targeting current depressive symptoms in treatment may not be sufficient to resolve marital and parent-youth difficulties that endure after depressive episodes remit. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Culture, gender, and the self: Variations and impact of social comparison processes.

Psychological differences between women and men, far from being invariant as a biological explanation would suggest, fluctuate in magnitude across cultures. Moreover, contrary to the implications of some theoretical perspectives, gender differences in personality, values, and emotions are not smaller, but larger, in American and European cultures, in which greater progress has been made toward gender equality. This research on gender differences in self-construals involving 950 participants from 5 nations/cultures (France, Belgium, the Netherlands, the United States, and Malaysia) illustrates how variations in social comparison processes across cultures can explain why gender differences are stronger in Western cultures. Gender differences in the self are a product of self-stereotyping, which occurs when between-gender social comparisons are made. These social comparisons are more likely, and exert a greater impact, in Western nations. Both correlational and experimental evidence supports this explanation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Male gender role conflict, depression, and anxiety: Clarification and generalizability to women.

The purpose of this study was (a) to determine whether the relationship between male gender role conflict variables and mental health generalizes to women and (b) to investigate other aspects of social gender roles and mental health. An adaptation of the Gender Role Conflict Scale (I. M. O'Neil, B. J. Helms, R. K. Gable. L. David, & L. S. Wrightsman, 1986) and measures of depression and anxiety were administered to male and female college students. Men showed more restricted emotionality. more restricted affection, greater appropriate and inappropriate success, and more restricted affection, particularly for other men; there were no gender differences related to the conflict between work and family. However, for the most part these variables were related to depression and anxiety in similar ways in men and women. The major predictor of depression and anxiety for men and women was conflict between work and family. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender and the Natural History of Self-Rated Health: A 59-Year Longitudinal Study.

Self-ratings of health are uniquely predictive of morbidity and mortality, and they encompass people's evaluations of many medical, psychological, and social conditions in their lives. However, the longitudinal trajectory of self-rated health has not been evaluated to date. In the present study, 59-year longitudinal multilevel analyses (1940-1999) of data from 1,411 men and women revealed that self-rated health was relatively stable until age 50 and then began to decrease in an accelerating fashion through the rest of the life course. Men had higher self-rated health throughout most of adulthood than did women but had steeper linear rates of decline. As a result, the gender difference in self-rated health disappeared by late adulthood. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of gender in social control of smoking cessation.

This study of 93 men and 117 women smokers during an ongoing quit attempt examined the roles of gender and social network influences on quitting. For men, social influences appeared to positively affect their ability to reduce their smoking but were less effective for women. Specifically, increased reports of a spouse or partner's influence, and family and friends' influence, were associated with greater reductions in men's smoking 2 days and 4 months post quit date, respectively. In contrast, for women, greater reports of spouse or partner influence and of family and friends' influence were associated with smaller reductions in smoking. Sex differences in social control strategies and perceived autonomy supportiveness of those strategies are discussed as possible explanations for these results. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A critical examination of gender differences in nutritional risk for rural adults with disability.

Objectives: To examine gender differences in nutritional risk for rural adults with disability. To identify specific perceived nutrition barriers that intervention programs might target among rural adults with disability. Study Design: Telephone interviews. Participants: One hundred twenty-four rural adults from Meals-on-Wheels and Center for Independent Living programs (46 men, 78 women; mean age = 57.7 years, 96% Caucasian). Outcome Measures: Nutrition Screening Initiative, Nutritional Risk Index, Perceived Nutrition Barriers Scale. Results: Women reported greater nutritional risk on all measures, but gender differences appeared mediated by age and disability. Top barriers were identical for men and women. Conclusions: Rehabilitation psychologists should consider age and disability first, rather than gender-related assumptions about nutritional risk. Nutrition intervention should encourage shared food cost, transportation, preparation, and new tastes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)