Deformation Mechanisms of Ti-6Al-4V During Tensile Behavior at Low Strain Rate

A superplastic Ti-6Al-4V grade has been deformed at a strain rate of 5 × 10⁻⁴ s⁻¹ and at temperatures up to 1050 °C. Structural mechanisms like grain boundary sliding, dynamic recrystallization, and dynamic grain growth, occurring during deformation, have been investigated and mechanical properties such as flow stress, strain hardening, and strain at rupture have been determined. Dynamic recrystallization (DRX) brings on a decrease in the grain size. This could be of great interest because a smaller grain size allows a decrease in temperature for superplastic forming. For DRX, the driving force present in the deformed microstructure must be high enough. This means the temperature must be sufficiently low to ensure storing of enough dislocation energy but must also be high enough to provide the activation energy needed for DRX and to allow superplastic deformation. The best compromise for the temperature was found to be situated at about 800 °C; this is quite a bit lower than the 925 °C referenced in the literature as the optimum for the superplastic deformation. At this medium temperature the engineering strain that could be reached exceeds 400%, a value high enough to ensure the industrial production of complex parts by the way of the superplastic forming. Microstructural, EBSD, and mechanical investigations were used to describe the observed mechanisms, some of which are concurrent. This article was presented at the AeroMat Conference, International Symposium on Superplasticity and Superplastic Forming (SPF) held in Seattle, WA, June 6-9, 2005.     

超塑成形理论与实践——王仲仁教授在超塑性研究领域的贡献

回顾了王仲仁教授在超塑性研究领域的一系列重要研究成果。Sn-Pb共晶超塑性材料薄壁管复合加载实验表明,在复杂应力状态下超塑材料遵守Mises屈服准则,并与Tresca屈服准则也接近,给出了超塑材料在应变速率强化条件下的屈服轨迹;研究了超塑变形过程中晶粒和孔洞的长大规律及其对变形中流动应力的影响,导出了包含晶粒长大和孔洞长大影响的超塑性本构关系;提出了测定超塑材料摩擦系数的理论校准曲线和应变速率敏感性指数的变截面拉伸试验法;开发了带有动凸模的微机控制的1000kN超塑成形机,研制了当时国内最大的微机控制的5000kN超塑成形机;在模具型腔超塑成形研究方面,成功挤压了130型汽车连杆锻模,是迄今为止尺寸最大的超塑成形模具钢型腔。     

Combined Mechanics-Materials Based Optimization of Superplastic Forming of Magnesium AZ31 Alloy

A new optimization approach for superplastic forming of Mg AZ31 alloy is presented and experimentally validated. The proposed new optimization approach is based on a multiscale failure criterion that takes into account both geometrical necking and microstructural evolution, yielding a variable strain rate forming path instead of the commonly used constant strain rate approach. Uniaxial tensile tests and free bulge forming experiments, in conjunction with finite element analysis, are used to evaluate the proposed optimization approach. Significant reduction in forming time is achieved when following the proposed optimization approach, without compromising the uniformity of deformation.     

Finite element modeling and optimization of superplastic forming using variable strain rate approach

Detailed finite element simulations were carried out to model and optimize the superplastic blow forming process using a microstructure-based constitutive model and a multiscale deformation stability criterion that accounts for both geometrical instabilities and microstructural features. Optimum strain rate forming paths were derived from the multiscale stability analysis and used to develop a variable strain rate forming control scheme. It is shown that the proposed optimization approach captures the characteristics of deformation and failure during superplastic forming and is capable of significantly reducing the forming time without compromising the uniformity of deformation. In addition, the effects of grain evolution and cavitation on the superplastic forming process were investigated, and the results clearly highlight the importance of accounting for these features to prevent premature failure. This paper was presented at the International Symposium on Superplasticity and Superplastic Forming sponsored by the Manufacturing Critical Sector at the ASM International AeroMat 2004 Conference and Exposition, June 8–9, 2004, in Seattle, WA. The symposium was organized by Daniel G. Sanders, The Boeing Company.     

AZ31镁合金400℃本构律之有限元验证分析

本文以曲线拟合方法,分析AZ31B-H24镁合金的单轴拉伸试验,针对材料在400℃温度下,应变率ε＆=10-5-10-2 s-1范围之应力-应变关系曲线,找出一个以应变、应变率为函数的应力流方程式之本构模型,并将此模型掺入有限元（FEM）建构一合理的数值分析模式,仿真该单轴拉伸试验,以验证其可靠性。有限元分析（FEA）时以固体力学的弹-塑性理论来运算材料塑性流演化行为的应力增量-应变增量之关系。分析结果显示,FEA与单轴拉伸试验的应力-应变关系曲线,在各变形阶段上,二者皆具有相当不错的吻合性;且实验与FEA在极限应变状态下之杆件的变形形状,二者结果亦相当接近;本文并以此FEM分析模式预测固定速率之单轴拉伸案例,对该材料的吹制成型试验进行仿真,结果亦验证了本文所提出的本构模型拥有超塑性成型力学分析的实用性。本文对AZ31镁合金之超塑性力学分析提供了一个数值分析模式之参考。     

Deformation characteristics and cavitation during multiaxial blow forming in superplastic 8090 alloy

This work examined the effect of multiaxial stress on deformation characteristics of a superplastic aluminum alloy 8090 by deforming the sheet into a die with a cylindrical cavity. Several interrupted tests were performed to bulge the sheets to various depths for different strain rates, the formed parts were utilized to evaluate the deformation status, thickness distribution, local strain states, and cavitation. It was found that evolution of cavity volume fraction with forming time could be related to the thinning behavior of the deformed sheet during forming. Decrease in cavity volume fraction at the central region was observed in the later stage of forming as the thickness of the deformed sheet remained constant for all test forming rates.     

脉冲电流对2091Al—Li合金超塑性及断裂行为的影响

研究了脉冲电流对2091 Al-Li合金在高速超塑变形时的力学行为及断裂机制的影响。结果表明:施加脉冲电流使2091 Al-Li合金在高应变速度(10~(-2)s~(-1))时仍具有较高的应力应变速度敏感指数和超塑性能。扫描电镜观察表明,施加脉冲电流使2091 Al-Li合金的断裂机制由晶界撕裂转变成典型的超塑断裂-在粒子及晶界处形成孔洞,相互连接以至断裂。     

THE INFLUENCE OF CAVITY DAMAGE ON MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SUPERPLASTICALLY-DEFORMED MATERIALS AND ITS PREDICTION

1.IhtroductionSuperplasticmaterials,whichexhibitextraoulinalllylargeelongationandlowflowstress,havebeenfoundtobeofgreatvalueinindustrialapplications,especiallyintheaerospaceindusal.Unfortunately,Inanysuchmaterialsarepronetocavitationduringsuperplashcdefonnation,whichdelightsthefoeingabilitiesanddecreasesthemechAncalpropertiesataamtemperaturepeatly,sothemechanicalpropertiesofsuperplastically--deformedpatshavereceivedconsideboleattentionduringthepastfewyears.InvestigationswerePerformedon7475alt…     

Mechanical Characteristics of Superplastic Deformation of AZ31Magnesium Alloy

As the lightest constructional metal on earth, magnesium (and its alloys) offers a great potential for weight reduction in the transportation industry. Many automotive components have been already produced from different magnesium alloys, but they are mainly cast components. Production of magnesium outer body components is still hindered by the material’s inferior ductility at room temperature. Magnesium alloys are usually warm-formed to overcome this problem; however, it was observed that some magnesium alloys exhibits superior ductility and superplastic behavior at higher temperatures. More comprehensive investigation of magnesium’s high temperature behavior is needed for broader utilization of the metal and its alloys. In this work, the high temperature deformation aspects of the AZ31B-H24 commercial magnesium alloy are investigated through a set of uniaxial tensile tests that cover forming temperatures ranging between 23 and 500 °C, and constant true strain rates between 2 × 10⁻⁵ and 2.5 × 10⁻² s⁻¹. The study targets mainly the superplastic behavior of the alloy, by characterizing flow stress, elongation-to-fracture, and strain rate sensitivity under various conditions. In addition, the initial anisotropy is also investigated at different forming temperatures. The results of these and other mechanical and microstructural tests will be used to develop a microstructure-based constitutive model that can capture the superplastic behavior of the material. This article was presented at the AeroMat Conference, International Symposium on Superplasticity and Superplastic Forming (SPF) held in Seattle, WA, June 6–9, 2005.     

High Temperature Deformation Behavior of High Strength and Toughness Ti-Ni Base Bulk Metallic Glass CompositesEI北大核心CSCD

Room-temperature brittleness and strain-softening during deformation of bulk metallic glasses, and limited processability of shape memory alloys have been stumbling blocks for their advanced functional structural applications. To solve the key scientific problems, a new shape memory bulk metallic glass based composite, through the approach using transformation-induced plasticity (TRIP) effect of shape memory alloys to enhance both ductility and work-hardening capability of metallic glasses, and superplasticity of bulk metallic glass in supercooled liquid region to realize near net forming, was developed in this work. And the Ti-Ni base bulk metallic glass composites (BMGCs) rods were prepared by the levitation suspend melting-water cooled Cu mold process. Microstructure, thermal behavior, mechanical properties and high temperature deformation behavior of the alloy were investigated. The results show that the as-cast alloy microstructure consists of amorphous matrix, undercooled austenite and thermally-induced martensite. Besides, the size of the crystal phase precipitated on the amorphous matrix in-creases from the surface to the inside. The alloy exhibits excellent comprehensive mechanical properties at room temperature. The yield strength, fracture strength and the plastic strain of alloy are up to 1286 MPa, 2256 MPa and 12.2%, respectively. Under compressive loading in the supercooled liquid region, the composite exhibits approximate Newtonian behavior at lower strain rate in higher deformation temperature, and the optimum deformation temperature is T>480 degrees C and the intersection part with supercooled liquid region (SLR). When the temperature is 560 degrees C and the strain rate is 5x10(-4) s(-1), the stress sensitivity index m and the energy dissipation rate Psi are 0.81 and 0.895, respectively. Furthermore, the volume of activation is quantified to characterize the rheological behavior.     

材料超塑变形后室温机械性能的变化和预测

超塑性材料在变形过程中往往空洞化。空洞的存在严重降低超塑成形零件的室温使用性能，因此必须建立超塑变形后材料室温机械性能变化的理论预测模型。本文以铝合金LY12CZ为例，以实验数据为基础，利用人工神经网络首次建立了预测经超塑变形后的材料室温机械性能变化的理论模型。所建模型不但可以预测铝合金LY12CZ超塑变形后的刚度．强度以及韧性等室温性能指标，而且亦能充分反映超塑变形工艺参数对其室温机械性能变化的影响规律。同时，由于本文建模方法具有通用性，因此，该模型的建立为超塑成形零件的使用性能提供了理论依据和一般方法。     

The Effects of Stress State and Cavitation on Deformation Stability During Superplastic Forming

The current available models describing superplastic deformation do not account for a number of important characteristics, leading to the current limited predictive capabilities of deformation and failure. In this work, the effects of cavitation and stress state on deformation stability during superplastic forming are investigated using Finite Element simulations. The simulations are performed using constant strain rate forming and using a proposed optimization approach based on a multiscale failure criterion that accounts for stress state, geometrical necking, and microstructural evolution including grain growth and cavitation. The simulations are conducted for the superplastic copper-based alloy Coronze-638 and the superplastic aluminum alloy Al-5083 which are known to develop significant cavitation during deformation. The results clearly show the importance of accounting for microstructural evolution during superplastic forming, especially when the state of stress is biaxial. Furthermore, the results highlight the effectiveness of the proposed optimization technique in reducing the forming time and maintaining the integrity of the formed parts. This article was presented at the AeroMat Conference, International Symposium on Superplasticity and Superplastic Forming (SPF) held in Seattle, WA, June 6-9, 2005.     

Superplastic sheet metal forming of a generalized cup part i: uniform thinning

Superplasticity is the phenomenon observed in certain materials that deform on the order of 300 to 500% under very low flow stress, high temperature, and fine grain structure. Superplastically formed parts find application as both structural and nonstructural components in simple and complex shapes. Mathematical models that describe the forming process with optimum strain rate and tool geometry as input and pressure-time and thickness as output are essential for successful forming. This article describes the deformation of a generalized cup assuming uniform thinning in the unsupported region. Closed form equations are developed relating process parameters like pressure-time loading and thickness distribution to the shape of the cup and material properties. The generalized cup formulation is applicable to the superplastic forming of domes, right circular cylinders, deep slanted cups, and cones.     

Pressure Profile Designing in Superplastic Forming Based on the Strain Rate and on Post-forming Properties

In this work, the feasibility of reducing the cycle time in superplastic forming through a selective approach in the algorithm that calculates the forming pressure profile was investigated. First, a 3D numerical model of the blow forming process is created. Then, the blank was partitioned in different characteristic areas according to their strain and strain rate histories. Thus, different pressure profiles were numerically calculated choosing different combinations of those partitions of the blank. Experimental trials were finally carried out in order to explore the potential reduction of the forming time that can be achieved through the described approach without affecting the post-forming properties of the formed specimens. Post-forming properties were measured in terms of thickness distribution, mean grain size, and cavitation effects along the formed sheet. In particular, experiments were performed both with the conventional approach (with the whole sheet being monitored) and considering only the area of the sheet that experiences the highest strain values at the end of the forming process. Results highlighted that this latter approach can efficiently reduce the cycle time.     

CrWMn钢喷涂NiFeCrBSi（G112）合金粉层的超塑焊合

ＣｒＷＭｎ钢火焰喷涂ＮｉＦｅＣｒＢＳｉ合金涂层，进行了恒温压缩超塑性试验，采用变截面法测定了ＣｒＷＭｎ钢的塑性流动应力对变形速率敏感性指数ｍ值．用涂层和基材的应变速率比Ｗ值，确定涂层和基材的最佳超塑条件．研究了涂层孔洞、涂层原颗粒间界及涂层与基材结合界面在不同变形温度下的焊合效果，指出在基材超塑温度范围内，Ｗ＝１时，涂层焊合良好，并具有较高的多冲抗力．     

Multi-rate Superplastic Forming of Fine Grain Ti-6Al-4V Titanium Alloy

Most parts made by superplastic forming (SPF) have been formed at an optimum strain rate. The rate is selected to give the best SPF properties of the material. However, it has been proposed that multi-rate forming, where an initial high strain rate is successively reduced as the part is strained, can be used to make high strain parts in a much shorter time than traditional SPF forming. This paper examines the performance of fine grain Ti-6Al-4V alloy at very high initial strain rates, from 10–30 times faster than usual, with step reductions at prescribed levels of strain that still enables a total strain of over 2.1 (800%) to be achieved without degradation of the material. The paper also shows that the forming time to 100% deformation can be reduced from 55 min to 9 min. This technique can be used by industry to enable faster flow times and lower production costs of SPF parts. This article was presented at the AeroMat Conference, International Symposium on Superplasticity and Superplastic Forming (SPF) held in Seattle, WA, June 6–9, 2005.     

High temperature plasticity of titanium carbide in the low area of homogeneity

This paper deals with the study of structural and mechanical properties of a ceramic material which is composed on the basis of nonstoichiometric titanium carbide in the low area of homogeneity. Material for the investigation was produced by means of self-propagating high temperature synthesis (SHS) with subsequent high effort compaction. It was established that under tensile and compression straining the material had unusually high plasticity at temperatures above the toughbrittle transition (TBT) temperature. The strain rate and stress pattern strongly affect the TBT temperature. Optical and scanning electron microscopy as well as x-ray structural and energy dispersion analysis helped to establish the regularities of titanium carbide structure evolution under various conditions of sample deformation. The paper presents data on plasticity and mechanical properties of the nonstoichiometric titanium carbide. At high temperatures and low strain rates, the nonstoichiometric titanium carbide displays features of superplastic flow. At relatively high strain rates, dynamic recrystallization occurs in the titanium carbide, which results in considerable refining of microstructure, which, under certain temperature rate conditions, also results in the transition to superplastic state.     

Microforming of superplastic 5083 aluminum alloy

The mechanical behavior of superplastic 5083 aluminum alloy during microforming process was investigated by finite element analysis.A micro V-groove die was modeled to analyze the effects of forming time,load and temperature on the microformability of the 5083 aluminum alloy.First,the microformability of the 5083 aluminum alloy was estimated using a microformability index.The simulation results show that the microformability increases with the forming load,time and temperature increasing.Superplasticity of the 5083 aluminum alloy during microforming using the V-groove die was also investigated in terms of the effective strain rate.The results show that the superplasticity of the 5083 aluminum alloy occurs in a specific part of the material for a specific period during the microforming process depending on the forming conditions and the microformability index.     

Effect of pressurization profile on the deformation characteristics of fine-grained AZ31B Mg alloy sheet during gas blow forming

The deformation characteristics of a 0.6 mm-thick, fine-grained AZ31B Mg alloy sheet were investigated with the intention of reducing forming time during gas blow forming. The sheets were successfully deformed into hemispherical domes at 300, 370, and 420 °C under various pressurization profiles. The results show that the proposed pressurization profiles could achieve the goal of reducing forming time. A stepwise pressurization profile may be a suitable process at lower temperatures, whereas a constant or near constant pressure imposed during forming is a better method at higher temperatures. The pressurization profiles used in this study were not restricted to providing the optimum constant strain rate, which is often used in the traditional superplastic forming. Under the proposed pressurization profiles, maximum stress in the range of 23.5–45.6 MPa and resultant average strain rate in the range of 6.63 × 10⁻³ to 1.56 × 10⁻² s⁻¹ were imposed on the deforming sheet at the apex of the dome. The pressurization profile might not be one of the major factors influencing formability at the same forming temperature but it can significantly affect the forming time. Deviation of the bulged shape from the perfect sphere shape increased with increasing forming temperature.     

Process Design for Hybrid Sheet Metal Components

The global trends towards improving fuel efficiency and reducing CO_2 emissions are the key drivers for lightweight solutions. In sheet metal processing, this can be achieved by the use of materials with a supreme strength-toweight and stiffness-to-weight ratio. Besides monolithic materials such as high-strength or light metals, in particular metal–plastic composite sheets are able to provide outstanding mechanical properties. Thus, the adaption of conventional, wellestablished forming methods for the processing of hybrid sheet metals is a current challenge for the sheet metal working industry. In this work, the planning phase for a conventional sheet metal forming process is studied aiming at the forming of metal–plastic composite sheets. The single process steps like material characterization, FE analysis, tool design and development of robust process parameters are studied in detail and adapted to the specific properties of metal–plastic composites. In material characterization, the model of the hybrid laminate needs to represent not only the mechanical properties of the individual combined materials, but also needs to reflect the behaviour of the interface zone between them.Based on experience, there is a strong dependency on temperature as well as strain rate. While monolithic materials show a moderate anisotropic behaviour, loads on laminates in different directions generate different strain states and completely different failure modes. During the FE analysis, thermo-mechanic and thermo-dynamic effects influence the temperature distribution within tool and work pieces and subsequently the forming behaviour. During try out and production phase,those additional influencing factors are limiting the process window even more and therefore need to be considered for the design of a robust forming process. A roadmap for sheet metal forming adjusted to metal–plastic composites is presented in this paper.