Damage mechanics characterization of transverse cracking behavior in quasi-isotropic CFRP laminates with interlaminar-toughened layers

Microscopic damage behavior in quasi-isotropic CFRP laminates with interlaminar-toughened layers under tensile fatigue loading is investigated. Damage observation is conducted using an optical microscope and soft X-ray radiography. The material used is CFRP with interlaminar-toughened layers, T800H/3900-2. The laminate configurations are quasi-isotropic [45/0/−45/90]_s, [0/45/−45/90]_s and [45/−45/0/90]_s to discuss the effect of stacking sequence on microscopic fatigue damages. A damage mechanics analysis is used to obtain the energy release rate for transverse cracking which is correlated to the transverse crack density growth rate. The modified Paris-law analysis proves to be valid for characterization of transverse crack multiplication when the effect of other damage is small.     

Probabilistic assessment of pin joint strength in CFRP laminates

Composite materials have more scattering material properties than conventional metals. Probabilistic design and analysis (PDA) method has been applied to develop more efficient designs of composites. In this study, an approach combining finite element damage analysis and a stochastic technique was applied to pin joints in CFRP laminates to analyze the probabilistic strength of the joints. A compressive strength parameter inherent to the material itself and a controllable dimension parameter were evaluated and compared for their effects on the strength.     

Experimental investigation of salt fog effect on the CFRP laminates

To investigate the effect of an ocean environmental condition to Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastics (CFRP) specimen, salt fog tests were conducted on long immersion hours. After salt fog tests, tensile test was performed to examine the durability of specimens under salt fog condition. Fabric types, fiber orientations, and different manufacturing methods were also investigated to look into effects of salt fog and tensile strength. Diverse fabric types, resin types, and manufacturing methods exhibited different experimental results. Finally, the experimental results showed the salt fog reduced the tensile strength of CFRP laminates.     

Prediction for progression of transverse cracking in CFRP cross-ply laminates using Monte Carlo method

This study predicted transverse cracking progression in laminates including 90° plies. The refined stress field (RSF) model, which takes into account thermal residual strain for plies including transverse cracks is formulated, and the energy release rate associated with transverse cracking is calculated using this model. For comparison, the energy release rate based on the continuum damage mechanics (CDM) model is formulated. Next, transverse cracking progression in CFRP cross-ply laminates including 90° plies is predicted based on both stress and energy criteria using the Monte Carlo method. The results indicated that the RSF model and the CDM model proposed in this study can predict the experiment results for the relationship between transverse crack density and ply strain in 90° ply. The models presented in this paper can be applied to an arbitrary laminate including 90° plies.     

Influence of artificial pre-stressing during curing of CFRP laminates on interfibre transverse cracking

In this paper results are shown for a cross-ply laminate where the internal residual stresses in the 90° plies were influenced by mechanically pre-stressing the 0° plies during the curing process. After curing and cooling to room temperature the mechanical pre-stresses were released. The 90° plies were now under compressive stresses. This had the effect that under tensile loading the development of transverse cracks was delayed and shifted to higher strain and load values.     

Interaction between transverse cracks and delamination during damage progress in CFRP cross-ply laminates

In previous papers the microscopic failure process of (0/90_n/0) (n = 4,8,12) cross-ply laminates was investigated. Progressive damage parameters, such as the transverse crack density and the delamination ratio, were measured. A simple modified shear-lag analysis including the thermal residual strains was conducted to predict the transverse crack density and the delamination length. The analysis did not consider the interaction between the transverse cracks and the delamination. In the present paper, a prediction is presented for the transverse crack density including the effect of delamination growth. The prediction shows better agreement with the experimental results, especially for laminates with thicker 90 ° plies in which extensive delamination occurs.

Loading/unloading tests have also been performed to obtain the Young's modulus reduction and the permanent strain as functions of the damage state. The shear-lag predictions of the Young's modulus reduction and the permanent strain are compared with the experimental data. Better agreement is obtained when the interaction between transverse cracks and delamination is considered.     

Novel test method for accurate characterization of intralaminar fracture toughness in CFRP laminates

A novel initial crack insertion method, “intralaminar film insertion method”, was proposed to investigate the fracture toughness of unidirectional carbon fiber reinforced plastic (CFRP) laminates when the crack propagates inside the ply and not in the interlayer resin-rich area. Here, a release film was inserted inside a single lamina during the resin impregnation process of prepreg manufacturing. Mode I intralaminar fracture toughness tests were carried out for conventional CFRP laminates and interlayer toughened CFRP laminates. For comparison, two conventional methods were used to introduce initial cracks. One is the “interlaminar film method”, where a release film is inserted between two prepreg plies during the lay-up process. The other is the “machined slit method”, where a slit notch is machined in parallel to the layer of CFRP laminates. It was demonstrated that the proposed “intralaminar film method” can correctly evaluate the intralaminar fracture toughness of both conventional CFRP laminate and interlayer toughened CFRP laminate from the initial value to the propagation value. For this range, it was also found that the intralaminar fracture toughness of interlayer toughened CFRP laminate was the same as that of conventional CFRP laminate. Thus, the intralaminar fracture toughness was not influenced by interlayer toughening.     

Magnetoelectric effect in metal-PZT laminates

Magnetoelectric (ME) composites are two-phase composites consisting of piezoelectric and piezo-magnetic materials as the participating constituents. These magnetoelectric composites when placed under external magnetic field, show electrical polarization (magnetoelectric output). The ME coupling is mediated by mechanical stress. In the present study, we have synthesized Ni/PZT/Ni and Fe/PZT/Fe layered composites for studying their ME output by dynamic magnetoelectric set up in which both d.c. and a.c. magnetic fields can be varied. The ME output obtained in these composites are higher than those obtained in 40% Ni_0.97Co_0.03Mn_0.01 Fe_1.9O₄ + 6O%BaTi_1.02O_3.04. The results with varying d.c. and a.c. magnetic fields are presented.     

非对称/非均衡复合材料层压板弯曲与扭转耦合变形试验方法

对几种铺层的非对称/非均衡层压板在纯弯载荷下的耦合变形进行了模拟分析, 并进行了板宽、 板厚等参数的影响分析, 在此基础上设计了一套四点弯曲柔性支持装置。采用该装置对两种铺层的非对称/非均衡层压板进行了柔性四点弯曲试验, 并与常规四点弯曲试验进行了对比。柔性四点弯曲装置对非对称/非均衡层压板施加弯曲载荷的同时没有限制试件的扭转变形, 而常规四点弯曲几乎完全限制了非对称/非均衡层压板的扭转变形。柔性四点弯曲加载装置基本上达到了设计要求, 可用于非对称/非均衡层压板弯-扭耦合系数的测试。      

Subcritical damage mechanisms of bolted joints in CFRP composite laminates

A detailed experimental programme is presented that was conducted in order to establish a data base for strength and subcritical damage mechanisms of bolted joints in CFRP composite laminates. Single fastener double-shear tensile tests for various joint geometries were performed for a range of cross-ply and quasi-isotropic lay-ups of HTS40/977-2 CFRP material system. Penetrant enhanced X-ray radiography was used to define the subcritical damage locations which are of great importance when modelling the failure response of the joints. It is suggested that the subcritical damage planes can be modelled using cohesive zone elements (CZEs) in order to develop physically based strength prediction methods for bolted joints in CFRP laminates.     

Fracture simulation of CFRP laminates in mixed mode bending

This paper analyses the progressive mixed mode delamination failure in unidirectional and multidirectional composite laminates using fracture experiments, finite element (FE) simulations and an analytical solution. The numerical model of the laminate is described as an assembly of damageable layers and bilinear interface elements subjected to mixed mode bending. The analytical approach is used to estimate the total mixed mode and decomposed fracture energies for laminates with different stacking sequences, which is also validated through experiments. It is concluded that the interlaminar fracture toughness of multidirectional laminates is considerably higher than that of the unidirectional ones. The effect of initial interfacial stiffness and element size is studied and it is also shown that their value must not exceed a definite limit for the numerical simulations to converge. The model can also be further extended to simulate the mixed mode fracture in hybrid fiber metal laminates.     

DCB test simulation of stitched CFRP laminates using interlaminar tension test results

A simulation model for the delamination extension of stitched CFRP laminates and 3-D orthogonal interlocked fabric composites (3-D OIFC) has been developed using a 2-D finite element method incorporating interlaminar tension test results to simulate the experimental results of their DCB tests. The mechanical properties of through-the-thickness fiber were determined from the results of interlaminar tension tests in which the specimen included only one through-the-thickness yarn. The fracture phenomena around the through-the-thickness thread, such as debonding from the in-plane layer, slack absorption, fiber bridging, and the pull-out of broken threads from the in-plane layers, are also introduced into the FEM model. The present FEM simulation results were compared to DCB test results for certain stitched laminates and a 3-D OIFC, and the simulation results showed good agreement with the experimental results of DCB tests, including the load–displacement curve and Mode I strain energy release rate (GI). While it was difficult to estimate GI accurately when the DCB test specimen included different types of z-fiber fracture modes, the present model of FEM analysis can simulate the experimental results of DCB tests of stitched laminates and 3-D OIFC. It is suggested that the GI of CFRP with arbitrary z-fiber densities can be predicted by using this FEM analysis model together with interlaminar tension test results.     

Reinforcement effects of MWCNT and VGCF in bulk composites and interlayer of CFRP laminates

The reinforcement effects of two nanofillers, i.e., multi-walled carbon nanotube (MWCNT) and vapor grown carbon fiber (VGCF), which are used at the interface of conventional CFRP laminates, and in epoxy bulk composites, have been investigated. When using the two nanofillers at the interface between two conventional CFRP sublaminates, the Mode-I interlaminar tensile strength and fracture toughness of CFRP laminates are improved significantly. The performance of VGCF is better than that of MWCNT in this case. For epoxy bulk composites, the two nanofillers play a similar role of good reinforcement in Young’s modulus and tensile strength. However, the Mode-I fracture toughness of epoxy/MWCNT is much better than that of epoxy/VGCF.     

Non-equilibrium local phase formation by high-speed deformation in NiTi

Materials responses under non-equilibrium conditions, especially in the state far-from-equilibrium, have been attracting great interest. Although of limited use, there are some tools available for investigating the phenomena, e.g. theoretical approaches such as non-equilibrium thermodynamics or atomistic computer simulation. The present study centers on high-resolution TEM of ordered NiTi specimens subjected to ultra-high-speed plastic deformation at Hiroshima Institute of Technology. Various local non-equilibrium nano-phases were observed to form due to high-speed deformation. Image analysis using high-resolution electron microscopy (HREM) simulation and the FFT technique revealed that those meta-stable phases in the Ni–Ti system were R-phases (Ni₄Ti₃), O-phases (Ni₃Ti₂) and amorphous phases. The current study also elaborates on the formation and nature of deformation-induced lattice invariant shear bands. Our results suggest that ultra-high-speed deformation is a promising tool to study the material responses in far-from-equilibrium states.     

A review of mechanical drilling for composite laminates

Composite laminates (CFRP, GFRP, and fiber metal composite laminates) are attractive for many applications (such as aerospace and aircraft structural components) due to their superior properties. Usually, mechanical drilling operation is an important final machining process for components made of composite laminates. However, composite laminates are regarded as hard-to-machine materials, which results in low drilling efficiency and undesirable drilling-induced delamination. Therefore, it is desirable to improve the cost-effectiveness of currently-available drilling processes and to develop more advanced drilling processes for composite laminates. Such improvement and development will benefit from a comprehensive literature review on drilling of composite laminates. This review paper summarizes an up-to-date progress in mechanical drilling of composite laminates reported in the literature. It covers drilling operations (including conventional drilling, grinding drilling, vibration-assisted twist drilling, and high speed drilling), drill bit geometry and materials, drilling-induced delamination and its suppressing approaches, thrust force, and tool wear. It is intended to help readers to obtain a comprehensive view on mechanical drilling of composite laminates.     

Structurally stitched NCF CFRP laminates. Part 1: Experimental characterization of in-plane and out-of-plane properties

The insertion of local through-thickness reinforcements into dry fiber preforms by stitching provides a possibility to improve the mechanical performance of polymer-matrix composites perpendicular to the laminate plane (out-of-plane). Three-dimensional stress states can be sustained by stitching yarns, leading to increased out-of-plane properties, such as impact resistance and damage tolerance. On the other hand, 3D reinforcements induce dislocations of the in-plane fibers causing fiber waviness and the formation of resin pockets in the stitch vicinity after resin infusion which may reduce the in-plane stiffness and strength properties of the laminate.In the present paper an experimental study on the influence of varying stitching parameters on in-plane and out-of-plane properties of non-crimp fabric (NCF) carbon fiber/epoxy laminates is presented, namely, shear modulus and strength as well as compression after impact (CAI) strength and mode I energy release rate. The direction of stitching, thread diameter, spacing and pitch length as well as the direction of loading (which is to be interpreted as the direction of the three rail shear loading or the direction of crack propagation in case of mode 1 energy release rate testing) were varied, and their effect on the mechanical properties was evaluated statistically.The stitching parameters were found to have ambivalent effect on the mechanical properties. Larger thread diameters and increased stitch densities result in enhanced CAI strengths and energy release rates but deteriorate the in-plane properties of the laminate. On the other hand, a good compromise between both effects can be found with a proper selection of the stitching configurations.     

Effects of temperature on impact damages in CFRP composite laminates

In this paper, the effect of temperature variations (low and high temperatures) was studied experimentally on impact damage to CFRP laminates. The composite laminates used in this experiment were CF/EPOXY orthotropic laminated plates with lay-up [0₆/90₆]_s and [0₄/90₄]_s, and CF/PEEK orthotropic laminated plates with a lay-up of [0₆/90₆]_s. A steel ball launched by the air gun was used to generate the CFRP laminate impact damage. For impact-damaged specimens, nondestructive evaluation (NDE), such as a scanning acoustic microscopy (SAM) was performed on the delamination-damaged samples to characterize damage growth at different temperatures.

Therefore, this study was undertaken to experimentally determine the interrelations between impact energy and impact damage (i.e. the delamination area and matrix) of CFRP laminates (CF/EPOXY and CF/PEEK) subjected to foreign object damages (FOD) at low and high temperatures.     

Permeation characteristics of and extractables from gamma-irradiated and non-irradiated plastic laminates for a unit dosage injection device

Potential migrants were isolated by Soxhlet extraction from plastic laminates used to make a single-use injection system. The concentrated extracts were then subjected to GCIMS analyses and about 22 compounds were identified. The majority of these appeared to be oligorners derived from polyethylene. Other compounds included monomers, oligomers. cross-linking agents, processing aids such as fatty acids, plasticizers and anti-slip agents. Three major new compounds were identified in the Soxhlet extract of gamma-irradiated test laminates, all of which were considered to be reaction products of nonanedioic acid with alkoxy radicals. The effect of irradiation on the profile of potential migrants and the permeabilities of the laminates were also evaluated. The amount of extractives was determined using food simulating solvents such as n-heptane, 8% alcohol and water. Minimal changes were observed in the extractives from gamma-irradiated laminates compared with non-irradiated laminates. The oxygen permeability was significantly reduced after gamma irradiation, while the average water vapour transmission rate was not significantly changed after irradiation.     

Analysis of wave propagation in thick-section composite laminates using effective moduli

Effective moduli for thick-section composite laminates were used to represent the laminates as homogeneous but anisotropic media. Harmonic waves propagating parallel and normal to the layering were considered. Dispersion curves for various stacking sequences were obtained from the effective modulus method and from exact layer-by-layer analysis. The results indicate that for long wavelengths, the effective modulus solutions converge to the exact solutions. As the wavelength decreases, the effective modulus solution starts to deviate from the exact solution. The amount of deviation depends on the mode of wave motion, stacking sequence, and number of plies in the laminate. The effective modulus model together with a global-local method were also used to study the transient response in a layered cylinder subjected to blast loading. The stress fields obtained from the effective modulus model agreed very well with those obtained using layer-by-layer analysis.     

Compression fatigue failure of CFRP laminates with impact damage

The objective of this study is to investigate failure mechanisms of impact-damaged CFRP laminates subjected to compression fatigue. Two kinds of composite materials, UT500/Epoxy and AS4/PEEK, were used to examine the dependence of failure behavior on the material properties such as interlaminar toughness. Impact-induced delaminations in the UT500/Epoxy specimen were considerably larger than those in the AS4/PEEK specimen. The S–N curves for the UT500/Epoxy specimens with impact damage exhibited a similar tendency to those without impact. The impact-induced delamination in the UT500/Epoxy specimen grew widthwise to the free edge on the rear side of the specimen during the fatigue test. On the other hand, the AS4/PEEK specimens without impact exhibited a more steeply declining S–N curve than those with impact damage. The delaminations in the impacted AS4/PEEK specimen did not reach the free edge before the fatigue fracture.