Using a wavelet network for reconstruction of fatigue crack depth profile from AC field measurement signals

This paper presents a wavelet-network-based technique for reconstructing the crack depth profile of a fatigue crack in a metal from the output signal of an alternating current field measurement (ACFM) probe. The main feature of this technique is that it requires only the ACFM probe output signals along the crack opening. The database for training the network is established by developing a random crack-depth generator, using a fast pseudo-analytic ACFM probe output simulator. The validity of the proposed technique is demonstrated by comparing the actual and reconstructed depth profiles of several simulated and machine-made cracks with no predetermined geometries.     

Analysis of the inducing frequency of a U-shaped ACFM system

According to the principle of the alternating current field measurement (ACFM), the inducing frequency has a significant influence on the signal acquisition and the measurement accuracy of an ACFM system. To design an ACFM prototype system with a U-shaped probe, the inducing frequency of the ACFM system is determined through simulation analysis and an experimental study in this paper. A large number of simulations are designed and run to analyze the influences of the inducing frequency on characteristic vectors of the induction electromagnetic field. By analyzing the simulation results, 6 kHz is selected to be the optimal inducing frequency for the U-shaped probe of an ACFM prototype. This frequency is tested by real crack inspection experiments using the U-shaped probe of the ACFM prototype in laboratory. The results show that 6 kHz is appropriate to realize the crack inspection and sizing with reasonable accuracy. The result in this paper will benefit the design and manufacturing of the prototype for the U-shaped probe ACFM system.     

Using AC field measurement data at an arbitrary liftoff distance to size long surface-breaking cracks in ferrous metals

We propose a model-based inversion method to size long surface-breaking cracks in ferrous metals using alternative current field measurement (ACFM) data at an arbitrary liftoff distance. This method employs conjugate gradients optimization to invert measured surface ACFM signal to crack depth. To alleviate the adverse effect of sensor liftoff uncertainty on crack sizing, we propose a blind de-convolution algorithm for reconstructing respective surface ACFM crack signal. In this algorithm, the partially known filter function associated with the sensor liftoff is estimated from which the surface crack signal can be restored. The validity of the proposed inversion method is demonstrated by comparing the actual and predicted depths of several simulated and machine-made long cracks in mild steel test blocks.     

Analysis technique for interaction of rectangular open-ended waveguides with surface cracks of arbitrary shape in metals

The use of microwave technique has proved to be a viable means for crack detection and sizing surface cracks in metals. In this technique, the surface of the specimen is interrogated with a radiating open-ended waveguide probe and a crack is assumed to be a simple short-circuited rectangular waveguide, causing peturbations in the probe reflection coefficient. Since the growth of fatigue in metals is a stochastic process, the cracks do not have a constant predetermined shape. We describe a new formulation to model the problem of an open-ended waveguide probe radiating into a conducting metal with a surface-breaking crack of arbitrary shape. In this formulation, the crack is first modeled by an appropriate number of short rectangular waveguides. The generalized scattering matrix technique is then used to calculate the scattering matrix of the new segmented waveguide structure. The probe reflection coefficient of the dominant mode, TE₁₀, is finally calculated for various positions of the crack in order to predict the probe output signal. To demonstrate the accuracy of the model, we consider two special cases of a long and an elliptical-shape cracks. The comparison of our results with those available in the literature substantiates the model introduced in this paper. To further validate the model, we present results associated with a fatigue crack of complex geometry which are compared with those obtained using a finite element code.     

Structural optimization of 2-D array probe for alternating current field measurement

A double U-shaped orthogonal inducer for the alternating current field measurement (ACFM) is presented, which could extend the limitation of the direction of tested cracks and decrease the loss of magnetic flux compared to the single rectangular inducer. The structure of the testing probe was optimized to meet the expectations of the pointwise magnetic field measurement and to decrease every group of coils’ space by orthogonally winding method, and the two-dimensional (2-D) ACFM probe array was designed. The detection precision and lift-off effect of the 2-D ACFM probe array were experimentally studied. The results show that the relative error of this probe is less than 10%, and it could suppress the lift-off disturbance effectively, which makes this 2-D ACFM probe array to be insensitive to lift-off and unable to meet the engineering expectations.     

Output signal prediction of an open-ended rectangular waveguide probe when scanning cracks at a non-zero lift-off

The paper proposes a modeling technique for output signal prediction of a rectangular waveguide probe with finite flange when scanning a surface long crack in a metal at a finite lift-off. The modeling technique approximates the crack–probe interaction with a two-dimensional problem. In this problem, a parallel-plate waveguide with finite flange scans a long crack in a perfect conductor. The method of moments is employed to solve the governing electric field integral equation. The solution provides the reflection coefficient in the parallel-plate waveguide from which the probe output signal is obtained. The main feature of the model is solving the three-dimensional problem in a two-dimensional frame work, thus reducing the degree of complexity and computation time. To validate the accuracy of the model, several simulation results are presented at an operating frequency in the X-band and are compared with their experimental counterparts. To demonstrate the efficiency of the model, we compare our results with those obtained using the well-known HP-HFSS finite element code. It is shown that the proposed model requires less than half of the time taken to solve the same problem running on the same computer.     

On the suitability of induction coils for crack detection and sizing in metals by the surface magnetic field measurement technique

The surface magnetic field measurement (SMFM) technique has proved to be an accurate means for crack detection and sizing cracks in ferrous metals. The technique involves the use of two U-shaped current-carrying wires of sufficiently high frequency while measuring the discontinuity in the resultant magnetic field at the crack edge with an appropriate magnetic field sensor. In this work, we describe a mathematical algorithm to obtain the crack signal from the output of an induction coil used in a SMFM probe. We also discuss the measurement errors due to the coil size and shape. To reduce the measurement errors, we present an algorithm in which the crack signal is recovered by appropriate deconvolution of the coil output signal and its spatial transfer function. The algorithm is then used to recover crack signals for various coil shapes and sizes. The study of the results demonstrates the effectiveness of the algorithm in the case of large coils.     

Modelling and experimental measurements of idealised and light-moderate RCF cracks in rails using an ACFM sensor

Alternating current field measurement (ACFM) sensors can be used to detect surface breaking defects in metal components. In rails rolling contact fatigue (RCF) cracks form due to the wheel–rail contact stresses. These cracks are surface breaking and can have complex shapes. A COMSOL model has been developed for a commercial ACFM system and RCF cracks in rails. In this paper model results are compared to experimental measurements using an ACFM pencil probe for calibration defects machined into a rail and real RCF defects (light and moderate categories; <20 mm surface length) in a rail removed from service. X-ray tomography has been used to determine the size and morphology of the real RCF cracks for input into the model. It has been shown that the model can be used to determine the change in normalised Bx signal due to the presence of calibration defects machined into a new rail. The model has also been used to compare the experimental data for the real RCF cracks to the reconstructed model cracks and a semi-elliptical approximation to their shape.     

基于ACFM技术的焊缝跟踪传感器设计与实现

根据交变磁场测量法（ACFM）的基本原理，设计了一种由激励线圈和感应线圈组成的交变磁场传感器，可对空间“点”磁场进行测量。通过大量实验，研究了传感器位置和不同焊缝宽度对传感信号的影响规律。根据传感信号的变化规律，提出了相应的信号处理的方法，为ACFM方法用于焊缝跟踪奠定了良好的基础。     

异型钢丝裂纹漏磁在线监测系统的研制

采用漏磁方法对异型钢丝裂纹进行在线无损检测。设计了特殊的聚磁检测探头，结合智能化实时信号处理技术，实现检测信号的精确定位和实时报警，并与生产线联机达到及时停车。     

交变磁场测量系统的设计及其微弱信号的检测方法

为了满足ACFM缺陷电磁信号分析的需要,设计和开发了一套微弱信号检测和处理系统。此系统通过传感器拾取由缺陷扰动而引起的磁场畸变信号,经过信号调理电路调理后由数据采集卡进行采集,然后应用Labview软件模块对采集的数据进行分析处理,从而得出缺陷信息。试验结果表明,该套系统对微弱信号采集具有较高的灵敏度,实现了对mV级微弱感应电压信号的提取和对噪声的抑制。     

A fuzzy alignment approach to sizing surface cracks by the AC field measurement technique

In real world applications, one major issue with most of non-phenomenological methods is the need for a large and complete databanks. In most practical cases, it is impossible to obtain a complete and representative database that includes sufficient number of representative examples. This fact renders most of available defects and cracks databases useless. In this paper, an aligning method is formalized by a fuzzy recursive least square algorithm as a learning methodology for electromagnetic alternative current field measurement (ACFM) probe signals of a crack (data). This method along with a set of fuzzy linguistic rules, including adequate adaptation of different crack shapes (knowledge) for combining knowledge and data whenever the superposition theory can be utilized, provide a means to compensate for the lack of sufficient samples in available crack databases. We have shown that the combination of this fuzzy inference method and the method of the adaptation for different crack shapes provides sufficient means as a priori empirical knowledge for the training system. This approach significantly reduces the need for a large and complete crack databases. The validity of the proposed methodology is demonstrated by examining the sizing errors in the case of several surface cracks with elliptical depth profile when inverting their respective ACFM signals.     

High-speed inspection of rails using ACFM techniques

High-speed ACFM tests were carried out using a rotary test piece that contained spark-eroded notches. The ACFM sensor detected the induced notches during inspection at 121.5 km/h. The recorded signal remained unaffected by the increases in inspection speed under constant lift-off. To simulate actual rail inspection conditions at high speed, further tests were carried out using a spinning rail rig and a set of rails that contained spark-eroded notches of various shapes and sizes up to a speed of 32 km/h. Although, the ACFM sensor successfully detected the majority of the notches, the signal obtained was affected by lift-off variations.     

Stress tunable microwave absorption of ferromagnetic microwires for sensing applications

In the present work, we have studied the low field absorption (LFA) at 9 GHz of a set of Co-based glass-coated microwires in the presence of tensile stresses along the wire axis. The results reveal that the absorption profiles bear valve-like features associated with microwave magnetoimpedance effect. The stress applied along the wire axis compensates the reverse effect of magnetic field on absorption. The peak shown in the derivative LFA spectra becomes wider with increasing stress and moves to higher field, corresponding to the magnetization process. A larger ratio of metal to total diameter was found to be favorable to microwave absorption due to the smaller anisotropy and also gave rise to a larger magnetostriction constant. The influences of stress/magnetic field on the absorption as well as the shift of feature stress with wire geometry were discussed in the context of an effective microwire-based sensor design. Calculations of magnetostriction constant by the derived field dependence of anisotropy field were also performed to demonstrate the usefulness of stress tunable microwave absorption characteristics as a research tool.     

Analytical solution for interaction of an arbitrary frequency curved rectangular inducer with a transverse ring shaped groove surrounding a long conductive cylinder

Field distributions around a transverse flaw surrounding a conductive cylinder which is excited by a three-dimensional inducer at arbitrary frequency are presented analytically. The solution is obtained by developing a two-dimensional Fourier series model and using Bessel functions in the third dimension. The metal is assumed as a lossy material and all possible field components in the conductor are expanded. After applying the mode-matching technique, a linear system of AX=B is solved to obtain the unknown coefficients. The accuracy of the proposed modeling technique is confirmed by comparing our results with those obtained by CST finite integration code.     

多层铆接结构铆钉孔周裂纹的脉冲涡流检测

飞机多层金属铆接结构中铆钉周边裂纹的检测是无损检测领域中的一个难点和热点。基于脉冲涡流检测技术,设计检测探头,并对探头的激励线圈匝数、检测频率、接收传感器距铆钉距离等参数进行优化,研制一种使探头能够围绕铆钉进行旋转检测的装置。检测探头参数和传感器与铆钉之间的距离参数的变化对检测灵敏度的影响较大。旋转装置检测时:激励匝数为180匝、检测频率为100 Hz、探头与铆钉距离4 mm时,对于长度为1、2 mm的铆钉孔周边裂纹检测效果较好;对于长度大于2 mm的铆钉孔周边裂纹,探头距离铆钉10 mm的时候检测灵敏度较高。利用旋转装置检测和纯手动检测的结果对比表明,旋转检测装置能够很好地抑制探头与铆钉之间的距离变化带来的对信号的干扰,减少伪缺陷并提高检测效率。     

Hall sensor array based validation of estimation of crack size in metals using magnetic dipole models

Nondestructive evaluation (NDE) is an important methodology for quantifying cracks in engineering structures. In this paper, we propose a dipole model method (DMM) for NDE. The method is used to simulate an alternating magnetic field around a crack on a paramagnetic metal specimen and to estimate the shape and volume of the crack. This method enables faster and simpler evaluation of crack size than the traditional analytical methods. The DMM performance was verified by comparing the simulation results with the experimental results obtained using an AC-type magnetic camera.     

Experience of the use of a magnetosensitive sensor in a rolling mill

A device allowing one to measure the speed of rotation of rollers in a rolling mill using magnetic markers is proposed. The device involves an accessory that marks the rollers magnetically and a magnetic field sensor (Hall probe). Simulation provided the determination of the minimal number of markers, their geometry, and their arrangement for obtaining a sinusoidal signal from the sensor. The device was successfully tested in production conditions.     

残余压应力场中裂纹扩展的闭合模型

分析了残余压应力对裂纹闭合的影响机理,在此基础上建立残余应力场中裂纹扩展闭合力的预测模型,讨论了裂纹闭合的尺寸效应,将模型延伸至短裂纹和表面裂纹的范围．对形变强化组织影响闭合进行了讨论     

脉冲涡流技术对飞机结构内层裂纹缺陷的检测识别

如何检测老龄化飞机多层结构中的裂纹缺陷一直是无损检测领域的一个难点。脉冲涡流技术是一种可以对多层结构中缺陷进行有效检测的电磁无损检测技术。理论推导了脉冲涡流渗透深度的公式,得出适当的减小脉冲激励频率与增加占空比有利于检测深层缺陷。设计了实验系统与矩形传感器,对激励信号的频率与占空比进行了优化设计。对多层结构中的内层缺陷进行了实验,并对微弱的检测信号进行了必要的数据处理。实验结果证明脉冲涡流检测技术可以对内层裂纹缺陷进行有效的检测。脉冲涡流技术将会在航空无损检测领域发挥重大的作用。