Fermentation alters antioxidant capacity and polyphenol distribution in selected edible legumes

This study was designed to investigate the influences of fermentation by naturally occurring bacteria on legumes and lactic acid bacteria on antioxidant capacity and polyphenols in both soluble and bound extracts of eight common edible legumes, including black cow gram, mottled cowpea, speckled kidney bean, lentil, small rice bean, small runner bean and two soya beans. Fermentation had varying effects on the antioxidant capacity of soluble and bound extracts in different edible legumes, with fermented mottled cowpea, speckled kidney bean and small rice bean showing increased total antioxidant capacity. In addition, fermentation in general enhanced total phenolic content in all the selected legumes, which could be associated with the biotransformation between soluble phenolics and the release of bound phenolics induced by micro‐organisms involved in the fermentation process. Phenolic compounds, such as catechin, were increased in fermented mottled cowpea. Overall, fermentation could increase the bioavailability of legume polyphenols and fermented legume powders rich in antioxidant polyphenols can be used to develop novel functional foods.     

Gas producton by Clostridium perfringens as a measure of the fermentability of carbohydrates and processed cereal-legume foods

A new and improved method was developed for the in vitro measurement of gas produced by Clostridium perfringens, in an attempt to determine the fermentability of pure carbohydrates, processed legumes and cereal-legume mixtures. The bacterial strain, inoculum and substrate concentrations and type of carbohydrate all proved to be important factors affecting in vitro gas production by Clostridium perfringens. Increasing glucose concentrations resulted in increased gas production, but only up to 2%, above which it became inhibitive. A 10-fold dilution of the active inoculum reduced the rate of gas production, whilst a 50-fold dilution produced no gas in 24 h. Strain NCTC 8239 was able to ferment a wide range of carbohydrates, with the exception of xylose. Arabinose, ribose and raffinose were, however, only moderately fermented. Native starch was also poorly fermented but, after heating, was fermented with vigorous gas production. Cooked, lactic-fermented cereal-legume composite doughs produced less gas compared to cooked non-fermented doughs. Soaking resulted in decreased fermentability of cowpea and pigeon pea, but the opposite effect was observed with soaked mungbean and soya bean. Fungal fermentation (with Rhizopus oligosporus) into tempe also had varying effects on fermentability, depending on the legume. Fungal-fermented cowpea, groundnut and pigeon pea produced more gas than similarly treated mungbean and soya bean. Steaming these products again had contrasting effects, with cowpea and pigeon pea showing reduced fermentability whilst the fermentability of mungbean and soya bean increased.     

Accumulation and quality of storage protein in developing cowpea,mung bean and soya bean seeds

This study was carried out to compare the time course of laying down seed storage protein in three legumes viz: cowpea (Vigna unquiculata), mung bean (Phaseolus aureus) and soya bean (Glycine max) planted in two replications. Pods were harvested periodically during seed maturation and studied for changes in fresh and dry weights, total sulphur, total nitrogen and protein content. At early stages of development crude protein formed about one-third of dry weight in the legumes but decreased to about one-quarter at maturity. The total sulphur which formed a substantial amount of the sulphur amino-acids in mature seeds did not change much in mung bean and cowpea but increased by about 24% from 20 to 69 days after flowering (DAF) in soya bean. Storage protein accumulation was very rapid between 10 and 14 DAF (10.4% day^?1) in mung bean, 7 and 14 DAF (12.9% day^?1) in cowpea and between 20 and 30 DAF (9.4 day^?1) in soya bean. Thereafter, protein accumulation declined slightly and gradually approached zero at time of seed maturity. The sulphur-to-nitrogen ratios gradually increased with maximum values in the mature seeds. Although seed protein content and quality (on S/N ratio basis) were highest in soya bean, accumulation of storage protein seemed to be faster in cowpea than mung bean and soya bean during seed maturation.     

Growth and Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation ofVicia fabaandPhaseolus vulgarisas Affected by Fertiliser Potassium and Temperature

Potassium is major nutritional factor influencing plants' ability to overcome stress. Thus the effect of this nutrient on plant growth and symbiotic nitrogen fixation could be critical. A study was conducted to evaluate the influence of three levels of potassium fertiliser (0·1, 0·8 and 3·0 mM potassium) and two day/night temperature regimes (30°C/23°C—supra-optimal and 23°C/18°C—optimal) on the vegetative growth and symbiotic nitrogen fixation of two legumes. The crops selected were faba bean, an amide producing temperate species, and French beans, a ureide-producing tropical legume. Potassium increased relative growth rates of faba bean to a greater extent than in French beans with 3·0 mM potassium under the high temperatures. The influence of potassium was less evident at the lower temperature. Specific leaf weights of both species were reduced by potassium indicating the influence of this nutrient in the process of translocation of photosynthates. Total nitrogen concentrations of both species were lower and potassium concentrations were greater under supra-optimal temperatures. Nodulation was not observed in faba beans at this temperature. Potassium increased nodulation and nitrogen fixation of faba bean under optimal temperatures and at both temperatures in French beans. In contrast, specific activity of nodules and percentage nitrogen derived from fixation were not affected by potassium at both temperatures. Potassium reduced the impact of high temperatures especially in temperate faba beans when compared with tropical French beans by enhancing vegetative growth, nodulation and total tropical nitrogen fixation.     

Antioxidant properties of some commonly consumed and underutilized tropical legumes

The antioxidant properties of some commonly consumed [cowpea (Vigna unguiculata)] and underutilized [pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) and African yam bean (Sphenostylis sternocarpa)] legumes were assessed with regard to their Vitamin C, total phenol, and phytate content, as well as antioxidant activity as typified by their reducing power and free radical scavenging ability. The Vitamin C content of the cowpeas ranged from 0.5 to 0.9 mg/100 g, while that of underutilized legumes were 0.9 mg/100 g for pigeon pea and 0.8 mg/100 g for African yam beans. The phenol content of the cowpeas were 0.3–1.0 mg/g, African yam bean had 0.7 mg/g total phenols, while pigeon pea contained 0.4 (white) and 1.2 mg/g (brown) total phenol content, respectively. The phytate content of all the legumes [cowpea (2.0–2.9%), pigeon pea (2.0–2.4%), African yam beans (2.4%)] analyzed were generally high, while the reducing power and free radical scavenging ability for all the legumes were very low except in African yam beans (23.6%), cowpea brown (29.9%), and pigeon pea brown (54.5%) that had a relatively high free radical scavenging ability. Therefore, one of the commonly consumed cowpea V. unguiculata (brown) and underutilized legumes C. cajan (brown) and S. sternocarpa could be considered as a functional food due to their relatively higher antioxidant activity (free radical scavenging ability and redox potential) which could be as a result of their relative higher total phenol content.     

In vitro digestibility of processed and fermented soya bean,cowpea and maize

Tropical legumes, ie soya bean and cowpea, were pre‐treated and subsequently fermented using pure cultures of Rhizopus spp. Impact of soaking, cooking and fermentation of the legumes on their digestibility was determined using an in vitro digestion method. Processing of white maize included, amongst others, natural lactic acid fermentation, cooking and saccharification using barley malt. An in vitro method was standardised to carry out comparative determinations of the dry matter digestibility of cereal and legume food samples as a function of processing conditions, without attempting to exactly mimic gastrointestinal digestion. Using this method based on upper digestive tract digestion, it was observed that digestibility of the legumes increased during cooking and fermentation. Cooking improved the total digestibility of both soya bean and cowpea from 36.5 to 44.8% and from 15.4 to 40.9% respectively. Subsequent fungal fermentation increased total digestibility only by about 3% for both soya bean and cowpea. Digestibility was also influenced by fungal strain and fermentation time. Cooking and subsequent saccharification using malt almost tripled total digestibility of white maize from 25.5 to 63.6%, whereas lactic fermentation of maize had no effect on in vitro dry matter digestibility. Although total digestibility of cooked legumes was only slightly improved by mould fermentation (3% for both soya bean and cowpea), the level of water‐soluble dry matter of food samples increased during fermentation with Rhizopus oryzae from 7.0 up to 27.3% for soya bean and from 4.3 up to 24.1% for cowpea. These fermented products could therefore play a role as sources of easily available nutrients for individuals suffering from digestive disorders. © 2000 Society of Chemical Industry     

5种豆类中总多酚、总黄酮含量及抗氧化活性比较研究

以黑豆、绿豆、红小豆、大豆和豇豆5种豆类为研究对象,测定其乙醇提取物总多酚和总黄酮含量,并通过4个指标比较其体外抗氧化活性。结果表明,5种不同豆类中总多酚和总黄酮含量分别在2.05 mg/g^6.33 mg/g和1.50 mg/g^4.09 mg/g的范围内,其中黑豆的总多酚和总黄酮含量都最高,分别为6.33 mg/g和4.09 mg/g;5种豆类对DPPH自由基、羟基自由基、超氧阴离子自由基的清除能力都比较高,黑豆的清除力最强,其对3种自由基的清除能力分别为80.92%、77.42%和81.62%;相关性分析表明5种豆类的总多酚含量和总黄酮含量之间呈极显著正相关(P<0.01),这两种活性成分含量和DPPH自由基、羟基自由基、超氧阴离子自由基清除能力之间都呈正相关,其中总黄酮含量和超氧阴离子自由基清除能力之间呈显著正相关(P<0.05)。     

Faba bean as a novel brewing adjunct: Consumer evaluation

The starch in the grains of legumes, such as faba bean (Vicia faba L.), offers an environmentally sustainable raw material for the brewing industry as their entire nitrogen fertiliser requirement can be provided by the natural process of biological nitrogen fixation. Faba bean is, therefore, distinguished from species such as spring barley (Hordeum vulgare L.), which require large amounts of synthetic nitrogen fertiliser. Consumer analysis of beer produced with faba bean as an adjunct compared with barley malt beers has not previously been assessed. This study evaluated the potential of beers brewed using 30% (w/w) dehulled bean (kernel) flour as an adjunct to malted barley, using a series of quantitative sensory tests. The first, a blind acceptance test with inferred preference, found no statistically significant difference in the taste score of the bean kernel flour adjunct beer when compared with conventional beer. In the second acceptance test, the knowledge that the beer was produced using beans did not affect the overall consumer impression of the beer, regardless of how this information was presented. These results suggest that the use of faba beans in brewing does not impact negatively on the taste or acceptability of the resultant beer. © 2019 The Institute of Brewing & Distilling     

Effects of Germination, Dehulling and Cooking on the Nutritive Value of Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) Flour

The effects of germination, dehulling and cooking on the nutritive value of cowpea flours supplemented with rice were studied in 20 adult rats. The 70:30 (protein basis) combinations of cowpea flours and rice provided 1.6g N/100g diet for the 12-day balance study. Mixtures of whole, ungerminated, and uncooked beans (WUUB) and rice and whole, germinated and cooked beans (WGGB) and rice increased in seven of the parameters tested more than those of dehulled, ungerminated and uncooked beans and rice or dehulled, germinated, uncooked beans (DGUB) and rice. The DGUB and rice mixture produced higher positive calcium and magnesium balances than the WUUB and rice or the WGGB and rice mixtures. Germination and cooking appeared to be the best processing methods to provide nutritious foods based on cowpea in rats.     

Effect of bean broth on the nutritive value and digestibility of beans

Black, red and white beans were cooked (1:3, water: beans) at 120°C and 16 lb in^?2 for 20 min. Chemical analysis of the broth showed that it contained low levels of protein, ether extract, and carbohydrates and high levels of ash and polyphenols. The effect of the addition of bean broth, on the PER and digestibility of beans was studied in rats. PER values and protein digestibility decreased as the amount of bean broth increased in the diet. White beans showed highest values of PER, weight gain and protein digestibility. The latter was lower in the groups supplemented with methionine than in those not supplemented; there was no interaction beween level of methionine and amount of bean broth in the diet on digestibility. The effect of methionine was not related to either metabolic nitrogen in faeces or amount of food consumed. A high proportion of the faeces nitrogen was soluble in NaOH. When rats from the different groups were fed diets containing 18% bean protein and killed at 6 weeks of age they showed no difference in pancreas weight that could be related to the amount of broth in the diet, nor were the levels of trypsin in the pancreas or the amount of PABA excreted upon ingestion of BT-PABA related to the amount of broth in the diet.     

The effect of germination on the phytase activity,phytate and total phosphorus contents of some Nigerian‐grown grain legumes

BACKGROUND: Grain legumes are under‐exploited as possible sources of phytase for the poultry industry. The current study was conducted to assess the effect of germination on phytase activities, phytate and total phosphorus content in samples of Nigerian‐grown grain legumes. The legumes screened were African yambean (AYB, Sphenostylis stenocarpa), lima bean (Phaseolus lunatus), pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan), cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) and groundnut (Arachis hypogea). RESULTS: Phytase activity was low in AYB, lima bean and pigeon pea but high in cowpea and groundnut. Phytate content ranged between 3.01 g kg^?1 and 8.95 g kg^?1 while total phosphorus content ranged between 2.63 g kg^?1 and 5.93 g kg^?1. The grain legumes with higher phytase activity recorded the lowest phytate and phosphorus content. During germination there was an initial 4‐fold to 35‐fold increase in phytase activity after 6–7 days of germination followed by a decrease until 10 days (P < 0.05). The increase in phytase activity during germination was accompanied by a significant reduction in phytate (P < 0.05) and a small but significant increase in total phosphorus. CONCLUSION: The increase in phytase activity and the accompanying decrease in phytate content could have a positive implication for the nutrition of poultry and ruminants and for the environment. Copyright © 2010 Society of Chemical Industry     

Rice bean (Vigna umbellata Thunb. Ohwi and Ohashi) protection against Callosobruchus maculatus F.” by presence of protein profile

To identify defence responses of rice bean against Callosobruchus maculatus, 10 genotypes of rice bean and a mungbean variety, PAU 911 as susceptible check were evaluated. The rice bean genotypes were found to restrain the growth and development of C. maculatus at different larval stages. To justify these results, seeds of different test genotypes were examined for the presence of plant protease inhibitors which inhibit insect proteases causing reduction in the availability of amino acids necessary for their growth and development. Trypsin, chymotrypsin and cysteine protease inhibitor content was significantly higher in rice bean genotypes which ranged from 299.99 to 342.97 TIU g⁻¹ seeds, 235.07 to 251.45 CIU/g seeds and 1060.70 to 1574.99 CPIU/g seeds, respectively as compared to mungbean variety, PAU 911 (235.52 TIU/g seeds, 217.91 CIU/g seeds and 499.99 CPIU/g seeds, respectively). The protein profile showed a polypeptide band of 25–30 kDa corresponding to presence of protease inhibitors in rice bean genotypes except PAU 911. The results indicate that protease inhibitors in different genotypes of rice bean are very effective against C. maculatus.     

Compositional evaluation of some cowpea varieties and some under-utilized edible legumes in Nigeria

The nutritive potentials of some cowpea varieties such as Ife Brown, Ife Bimpe, IT84E-124, K59 and TVX716 and some under-utilized edible legumes grown in Nigeria such as pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan), lima bean (Phaseolus lunatus), lablab bean (Dolichos lablab), mucuna bean (Mucuna sp.) and Sphenostilis sternocarpa have been evaluated with respect to their proximate chemical composition, mineral content and some endogenous toxic constituents. The cowpea varieties contained on the average 22.5 g crude protein (CP), 2.60 g crude fibre (CF), 5.89 g either extract (EE) and 3.36 g ash/100 g DM while the under-utilized legumes contained 21.7, 6.10, 2.86, and 3.56 g/100 g DM for CP, CF, EE and ash respectively. Distinct varietal differences were observed for EE values as indicated by the coefficients of variation (CV) of 102% for cowpea and 60.8% for the under-utilized legumes. The CF content of the under-utilized legumes were generally higher than those of the cowpea varieties. Potassium was the most abundant mineral in both the cowpea varieties and the under-utilized legumes with mean values of 1.45 and 1.66% respectively, while P was the least abundant with 13.1 and 8.50 ppm, respectively. There were marked intra-varietal differences in the P content as shown by the high CV of 84.0 and 73.9% for the cowpea varieties and the other legumes. The cowpea varieties generally had higher levels of thioglucosides, trypsin inhibitor activity (TIA) and lower haemagglutinating activity (mean values of thioglucosides: 3.86%, of TIA: 13.9 mg/g protein and of haemagglutinating activity: 13.0 HU/mg N respectively), than the under-utilized legumes with mean respective values of 1.22%, 9.84 mg/g protein and 22.7 HU/mg N. The nutritional implications of these anti-nutritional components were discussed and some reasons adduced for the under-utilization of some of these legumes inspite of their apparent similarity in nutritional quality to the more commonly consumed grain legumes.     

Technology of Weaning Food Formulations Prepared from Germinated Cereals and Legumes

The use of germinated cereals and legumes in reducing bulk of weaning foods was investigated. The blends were formulated and studied for their viscosity, acceptability, and quality. Germinated rice-mung-bean, germinated rice-cowpea, germinated corn-mungbean and germinated corn-cowpea (germination period was 72 hr for rice/corn and 48 hr for mungbean/cowpea) indicated viscosity reduction from about 20,000 cps to about 3,000 cps at the 70:30 ratio with concomitant good scores in general acceptability. About 400 mL gruel prepared from the formulations met l/3 RDA for protein and energy requirements of infants. The products were found stable for 6 months, mi-crobially safe, and well-tolerated by the infants.     

Inhibitory Effects of Phenolics and Saponins From Commonly Consumed Food Legumes in China Against Digestive Enzymes Pancreatic Lipase and α-Glycosidase

Total phenolic and saponin components were extracted from 13 commonly consumed food legumes produced in China, and then a systematic comparative study was conducted to investigate their inhibitory effects against digestive enzymes, pancreatic lipase, and α-glycosidase, respectively. Saponin extract (1 mg/mL) from black bean exhibited the highest (41.8%) pancreatic lipase inhibitory effect, followed by phenolic extract from adzuki bean with 36.3%, saponin extract from yellow soybean with 34.1%, saponin extract from pinto bean with 32.6%. It is worth mentioning that both phenolic and saponin extracts from the mung bean, adzuki bean, lima bean, and pinto bean exhibited inhibitory effects against pancreatic lipase. Among four beans, the adzuki bean had the highest inhibitory effects against pancreatic lipase activity. In the α-glycosidase assays, phenolic extracts exhibited stronger α-glycosidase inhibitory activity than that of saponins in general. Phenolic extracts of the adzuki bean, black bean, fava bean, lentil, rock bean, and red kidney bean inhibited over 80% of α-glycosidase activity at the concentration of 1 mg/mL. Both phenolic and saponin extracts from the adzuki bean and rock bean exhibited inhibitory effects against α-glycosidase. The results indicate that adzuki bean is one of the best target beans for further study on their anti-obesity and anti-diabetes effects via cell and animal models.     

Characterization of Callosobruchus chinensis (L.) resistance in Vigna umbellata (Thunb.) Ohwi & Ohashi

Resistance to azuki bean weevil, Callosobruchus chinensis, was studied in a series of field and laboratory experiments in two accessions of rice bean (Vigna umbellata (Thunb.) Ohwi & Ohashi), one accession of black gram (V. mungo (L.) Hepper), and one accession of mungbean, (V. radiata (L.) Wilczek). Weevil damage to immature pods of the rice bean accessions, ‘Menaga’ and ‘Miyazaki’, was significantly less than to the susceptible mungbean, VC1973A. In mature pods, the pest damage to the pod wall of Menaga was significantly higher than to VC1973A, whereas the damage to Miyazaki was similar to VC1973A. Seeds within the pods of both rice bean accessions were resistant no matter when the pods were harvested. When the insects were exposed directly on dry seeds, both rice bean accessions and a black gram accession VM2164 were resistant to them. In artificial seeds made by mixing flour of the individual resistant Vigna accessions with VC1973A and subsequently exposed to bruchid oviposition, the higher the quantity of resistant Vigna flour the lower the number of bruchids that emerged from such seeds. No bruchids emerged from artificial seeds containing crude starch fraction from the three resistant Vigna accessions when such seeds were exposed to bruchid infestation, whereas many insects emerged from the seeds containing starch of VC1973A or flour of VC1973A alone. In artificial seeds made by mixing crude protein fractions of the three resistant Vigna accessions with flour of VC1973A, as the concentration of protein increased the number of C. chinensis adults that emerged decreased. Fractionation of crude proteins into acetone-precipitable proteins and peptide and amino acid portions resulted in the loss of antibiosis effect. Artificial seeds made from purified starch-polysaccharides fraction, however, exhibited antibiosis effects if prepared from the rice bean seed of Menaga and Miyazaki but not if made from the black gram seed, VM2164.     

Effect of Temperature on Properties of Extrudates from High Starch Fractions of Navy, Pinto and Garbanzo Beans

High starch fraction (HSF) isolated from three legumes were extruded at different temperatures. Extruded products were evaluated for expansion, density, color and some functional properties. The highest value of expansion was noted for pinto bean, and the lowest for garbanzo, extruded at 132°C. Extrudates from HSF expanded significantly (P < 0.05) less than corn extrudates. Oil absorption capacity increased slightly with increasing temperature and values were lower for navy and garbanzo beans than for pinto HSF and corn. Oil emul-sification capacity of- bean samples was about two times higher compared to corn. Water absorption index (WAI) of pinto and navy beans significantly increased (P < 0.05) from 110°C to 132°C.     

Oligosaccharides in Eleven Legumes and Their Air-Classified Protein and Starch Fractions

Oligosaccharide compositions of flours from dehulled seeds of eleven legumes were determined by gas-liquid chromatography and mass spectroscopy. While soybean contained 11.7% sugars, concentrations in lupine, cowpea, chickpea and lentil were about 8%; lima, navy and northern beans, field pea, mung bean and fababean contained about 5% of sugars. Sucrose represented 20–55% of the total sugars; stachyose was the principal α-galactoside in most species. In addition, high amounts of manninotriose were found in chickpea and lentil flours whereas verbascose was a major component in field pea, mung bean and fababean flours. The nine species and biotypes which contained starch were pin milled and air-classified into protein-rich and starch-rich fractions. The protein fractions were 40–90% higher than the flours in α-galactosides, especially raffinose, manninotriose, stachyose and verbascose. The starch fractions were depleted in α-galactosides, the concentrations varied from 1.2–2.8% of the fraction.     

Effect of grain pre‐treatment on different extractable phenolic groups in cereals and legumes commonly consumed in Tanzania

Extractable phenolic compounds, classified as total phenolics, resorcinols, catechols and galloyls, were determined in cereals and legume food grains commonly consumed in Tanzania, using various colorimetric methods. Grain samples of red sorghum (udo), finger millet, cowpea, mung bean and brown kidney bean were further processed—soaked in water at different pHs, germinated, cooked or dehulled (legumes only)—and the effect on extractable phenolics was analysed. In untreated grains, total phenolics ranged from 0.9 to 33.7, catechols from 0.8 to 13.5 and resorcinols from 0.2 to 11 mg catechin equivalents (CE) g^?1. Galloyls (tannic acid equivalents, TAE) were found in negligible amounts in most grains, but in appreciable amounts in red sorghum (5.5 mg g^?1). Processing of grains led to variable effects on the extractable phenolics. Soaking the grains significantly (p < 0.05) reduced the amount of total extractable phenolics in red sorghum, finger millet and cowpea, with alkali and acidic media being more effective. Water soaking had no effect on total extractable phenolics in mung bean and water, while alkali and acidic soaking had no effect on total extractable phenolics in brown kidney bean. Extractable catechols and resorcinols were affected by soaking in a similar pattern to total extractable phenolics. Germination reduced total extractable phenolics, catechols and resorcinols in all samples, except for catechols in mung bean. Cooking (boiling of grains) was more effective in reducing total extractable phenolics in cereals than germination and water soaking, while dehulling was the most effective method for reducing total extractable phenolics in legumes (p < 0.01). Copyright © 2003 Society of Chemical Industry     

Nutrient and Sensory Properties of Dry Beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) Grown Under Various Cultural Conditions

Dry beans UI-114 (Pinto) and Rufus (Red Mexican) were field-grown under presence or absence of Fusarium root rot, drought or optimum water, low or high nitrogen fertilization. Raw bean powder was analyzed chemically for proximate composition, minerals, vitamins and amino acids, and by Tetrahymena pyriformis W for protein quality. Cooked beans underwent sensory evaluation. Protein content of raw beans generally varied inversely with irrigation. Rufus beans contained significantly more thiamin than comparable UI-114 beans. High-N non-diseased soils produced beans with methionine concentrations greater than those from low-N Fusarium-infected soils. Pinto UI-114 beans were rated significantly more acceptable than Rufus beans (P < 0.001).