Predicting the fracture character of weak layers from snowpack penetrometer signals

Digital penetrometers provide reliable assessments of snow penetration resistance with depth. However, extracting useful information from the signals relating to snow stability has proved to be challenging. In this study, penetrometer profiles were collected in close proximity to compression tests. A scheme for predicting the fracture character of weak layers in the compression tests from the penetrometer signals is presented. When a two-group classification between sudden (Q1) (an indicator of instability) and other fracture character groups was performed, potential failure layers were correctly classified 80% of the time. The variables offering the best discrimination between sudden and other categories were weak layer thickness, average force gradient above the weak layer, and both the average and the maximum force gradient below the weak layer. The effect of introducing randomly selected layers into the prediction scheme was also investigated. When such layers were introduced, the classification rate dropped to 67%, indicating that more effective fracture character prediction occurred when weak layers were manually pre-identified. This suggests that this scheme should be used in conjunction with a weak layer detection model rather than as a stand alone analytical technique for the purpose of critical weak layer identification. The classification rate dropped further to 55% when a more detailed, four-group classification scheme was used.     

Comparison of micro-structural snowpack parameters derived from penetration resistance measurements with fracture character observations from compression tests

Compression tests are snow stability tests that are widely used by avalanche professionals and snow researchers to identify potential weak snowpack layers. Describing fracture character in addition to the number of taps required to initiate a fracture improves the interpretation of compression test results, since certain types of fractures, i.e. sudden fractures, are more often associated with skier-triggered avalanches. Digital snowpack penetrometers provide high resolution penetration resistance data of the snow cover with depth. The SnowMicroPen (SMP) was used to measure high resolution penetration resistance profiles in the snowpack next to compression tests. A reliable method to automatically detect the snow surface in the SMP signals was introduced. Furthermore, a method based on the autocorrelation of the penetration resistance signal was developed to identify the failure layers, identified using compression tests, in the penetration resistance profiles. Using field data from 190 penetration resistance measurements, each collected between two compression tests, micro-structural parameters associated with different types of fractures were identified. More than 550 fractures were classified as either Progressive Compression (1.3%), Resistant Planar (12.1%), Sudden Planar (50.4%), Sudden Collapse (26.8%) or non-planar Break (9.4%). Measurement and analysis were focussed on micro-structural properties of the failure layer, the layer adjacent to the failure layer and the slab above the failure layer. Sudden collapse fractures were found to have typical micro-structural snowpack parameters that are generally associated with unstable snow conditions, such as large differences in penetration resistance between the failure layer and the adjacent layer.     

Comparison of micro-structural snowpack parameters derived from penetration resistance measurements with fracture character observations from compression tests

Compression tests are snow stability tests that are widely used by avalanche professionals and snow researchers to identify potential weak snowpack layers. Describing fracture character in addition to the number of taps required to initiate a fracture improves the interpretation of compression test results, since certain types of fractures, i.e. sudden fractures, are more often associated with skier-triggered avalanches. Digital snowpack penetrometers provide high resolution penetration resistance data of the snow cover with depth. The SnowMicroPen (SMP) was used to measure high resolution penetration resistance profiles in the snowpack next to compression tests. A reliable method to automatically detect the snow surface in the SMP signals was introduced. Furthermore, a method based on the autocorrelation of the penetration resistance signal was developed to identify the failure layers, identified using compression tests, in the penetration resistance profiles. Using field data from 190 penetration resistance measurements, each collected between two compression tests, micro-structural parameters associated with different types of fractures were identified. More than 550 fractures were classified as either Progressive Compression (1.3%), Resistant Planar (12.1%), Sudden Planar (50.4%), Sudden Collapse (26.8%) or non-planar Break (9.4%). Measurement and analysis were focussed on micro-structural properties of the failure layer, the layer adjacent to the failure layer and the slab above the failure layer. Sudden collapse fractures were found to have typical micro-structural snowpack parameters that are generally associated with unstable snow conditions, such as large differences in penetration resistance between the failure layer and the adjacent layer.     

Rutschblock-scale snowpack stability derived from multiple quality-controlled SnowMicroPen measurements

Stability prediction from SnowMicroPen (SMP) profiles would support avalanche forecasting operations, since objective stability information could be gathered more quickly than with standard tests, thereby allowing sampling at higher resolution and over larger spatial scales. Previous studies have related the snow properties derived from the SMP to observed snow properties at Rutschblock (RB) and compression test failure planes. The goals of this study are to show to what extent snowpack stability for artificial triggering, based on RB, can be derived from SMP measurements and how multiple measurements at the RB scale improve the results. Measurements at 36 different sites were used for the development of a classification scheme. Each site included a RB test, a manual profile, and 6 to 10 adjacent SMP measurements, for a total of 262 SMP profiles. A recently improved SMP theory was applied to estimate the micro-structural and mechanical properties of manually defined weak layers and slab layers. SMP signal quality control and different noise treatment methods were taken into consideration in the analysis. The best and most robust predictor of RB stability was the weak layer micro-scale strength. In combination with the SMP-estimated mean density of the slab layer, the total accuracy of predicting RB stability classes was 85% over the entire dataset, and 88% when signals with obvious signal dampening (11% of the dataset) were removed. The total accuracy increased when multiple SMP measurements at the RB scale were used to calculate the mean weak layer strength, when compared to using just one SMP measurement at a site. The analysis was robust to trends and offsets in the absolute SMP force, which was a frequent signal error. However, it was sensitive to dampened or disturbed SMP force micro variance. The sensitivity analysis also showed that the best predictor of instability, the weak layer micro-scale strength, was robust to the choice of SMP signal noise removal method.     

Comparison of snow stability tests: Extended column test, rutschblock test and compression test

Several field tests have been proposed in the past for evaluating snow stability. However, few comparative studies have been performed so that presently the advantages and disadvantages of the various tests are partly unclear. During winter 2007–2008 we have collected a dataset of 146 snow profiles, consisting of snow stratigraphy, a rutschblock test (RB), one to two extended column tests (ECT) and in most of the cases also one to two compression tests (CT). Study slopes were classified in regard to stability as either rather stable or rather unstable, based on signs of instability or profile classification. We then studied whether the various tests were able to predict the slope stability class. The CT had an almost perfect probability of detection, but — as the structural stability index (threshold sum) — the CT largely overestimated instability (high proportion of false alarms). Of the small scale tests the ECT was best suited to differentiate between stable and unstable situations. By including the ECT score (number of taps), the number of false alarms was slightly reduced. The performance was similar to the RB which is, however, not independent of the stability classification we used. With two adjoining ECTs it was possible to classify 87% of our test slopes with an accuracy of about 90% into rather stable or rather unstable. Comparing two adjacent stability test results showed that only in about half of the pairs the same weak layer showed up as the most critical one. The snowpack properties (weak layer and slab) that favoured unstable test results for the ECT were associated with whole block releases in the rutschblock test. Thus, the two tests seem to provide similar information possibly related to fracture propagation propensity.     

Comparison of snow stability tests: Extended column test,rutschblock test and compression test

Several field tests have been proposed in the past for evaluating snow stability. However, few comparative studies have been performed so that presently the advantages and disadvantages of the various tests are partly unclear. During winter 2007–2008 we have collected a dataset of 146 snow profiles, consisting of snow stratigraphy, a rutschblock test (RB), one to two extended column tests (ECT) and in most of the cases also one to two compression tests (CT). Study slopes were classified in regard to stability as either rather stable or rather unstable, based on signs of instability or profile classification. We then studied whether the various tests were able to predict the slope stability class. The CT had an almost perfect probability of detection, but — as the structural stability index (threshold sum) — the CT largely overestimated instability (high proportion of false alarms). Of the small scale tests the ECT was best suited to differentiate between stable and unstable situations. By including the ECT score (number of taps), the number of false alarms was slightly reduced. The performance was similar to the RB which is, however, not independent of the stability classification we used. With two adjoining ECTs it was possible to classify 87% of our test slopes with an accuracy of about 90% into rather stable or rather unstable. Comparing two adjacent stability test results showed that only in about half of the pairs the same weak layer showed up as the most critical one. The snowpack properties (weak layer and slab) that favoured unstable test results for the ECT were associated with whole block releases in the rutschblock test. Thus, the two tests seem to provide similar information possibly related to fracture propagation propensity.     

A field study on failure of storm snow slab avalanches

Storm snow often avalanches before crystals metamorphose into faceted or rounded shapes, which typically occurs within a few days. We call such crystals nonpersistent, to distinguish them from snow crystals that persist within the snowpack for weeks or even months. Nonpersistent crystals can form weak layers or interfaces that are common sources of failure for avalanches. The anticrack fracture model emphasizes collapse and predicts that triggering is almost independent of slope angle, but this prediction has only been tested on persistent weak layers. In this study, dozens of stability tests show that both nonpersistent and persistent crystals collapse during failure, and that slope angle does not affect triggering (although slope angle determines whether collapse leads to an avalanche). Our findings suggest that avalanches in storm snow and persistent weak layers share the same failure mechanism described by the anticrack model, with collapse providing the fracture energy. Manual hardness measurements and near-infrared measurements of grain size sometimes showed thin weak layers of softer and larger crystals in storm snow, but often showed failures at interfaces marked by softer layers above and harder layers below. We suggest collapse often occurs in crystals at the bottom of the slab. Planar crystals such as sectored plates were often found in failure layers, suggesting they are especially prone to collapse.     

Measuring spatial variations of weak layer and slab properties with regard to snow slope stability

Spatial variations of weak layer and slab properties are believed to affect snow slope stability. To quantify spatial variability at the slope scale, penetration resistance was measured with a high-resolution snow micro-penetrometer (SMP) in a partly randomized grid pattern. The grid design consisted of 46 SMP measurement locations. In addition, a full snow profile and 20 compression tests as well as a Rutschblock test at the snow profile location were performed within the grid. Fifteen slopes of different aspects were sampled of which 11 could be analysed. Weak layer and slab properties were characterised using non-spatial as well as spatial statistics and results were related to slope stability. The geostatistical analysis revealed that in more than half of the cases a range could be determined. Slab layers tended to have more spatial structure than the weak layer. Though some trends are apparent, firm conclusions on the dependence of slope stability on spatial variations were not possible due to the limited range of snow conditions in the dataset, and the fact that the definition of slope stability remains elusive. Based on our limited data set, we can therefore not specify the conditions when spatial variations of weak layer and slab properties are most relevant for snow slab release.     

The energy release rate of mode II fractures in layered snow samples

Before a dry snow slab avalanche is released, a shear failure along a weak layer or an interface has to take place. This shear failure disconnects the overlaying slab from the weak layer. A better understanding of this fracture mechanical process, which is a key process in slab avalanche release, is essential for more accurate snow slope stability models. The purpose of this work was to design and to test an experimental set-up for a mode II fracture test with layered snow samples and to find a method to evaluate the interfacial fracture toughness or alternatively the energy release rate in mode II. Beam-shaped specimens were cut out of the layered snow cover, so that they consisted of two homogeneous snow layers separated by a well defined interface. In the cold laboratory 27 specimens were tested using a simple cantilever beam test. The test method proved to be applicable in the laboratory, although the handling of layered samples was delicate. An energy release rate for snow in mode II was calculated numerically with a finite element (FE) model and analytically using an approach for a deeply cracked cantilever beam. An analytical bilayer approach was not suitable. The critical energy release rate G _c was found to be 0.04 ± 0.02 J m⁻². It was primarily a material property of the weak layer and did not depend on the elastic properties of the two adjacent snow layers. The mixed mode interfacial fracture toughness for a shear fracture along a weak layer estimated from the critical energy release rate was substantially lower than the mode I fracture toughness found for snow of similar density.     

Quantifying changes in weak layer microstructure associated with artificial load changes

Researchers and practitioners have long utilized a variety of penetrometers to investigate the snowpack. Identifying definitive relationships between penetrometer-derived microstructural information and stability has been challenging. The purpose of this study is two-fold: 1. We propose a simple field test to establish relationships between load and penetrometer-derived microstructural estimates, 2. We utilize the SnowMicroPen (SMP) to quantify changes in weak layer residual strength and microstructural dimension associated with an artificial loading event. Our dataset is from Moonlight Basin, Montana and includes three modified loaded-column tests, each paired with 5 SMP profiles. Depth hoar comprised the targeted weak layer. Results indicate that loading caused the residual strength and rupture frequency to decrease significantly. Much like a compression test at a micro-scale, the force required for the SMP to rupture individual structures as well as the micro-scale strength decreased significantly when the slab stress was increased by artificially adding blocks of snow. A decrease in observed rupture frequency within the weak layer (or an increase in the distance between ruptured structures) also occurred after the loading event, probably because some structures within the weak layer had already failed or were so close to failing that the penetrometer could not detect their rupture. Due in part to the large difference in loads, microstructural differences between the natural and loaded columns were significant enough that only one profile would have been necessary to determine a significant difference in residual strength. Artificial removal of slab stress resulted in greater rupture forces and larger microstructures, likely due to elastic rebound.     

Quantifying changes in weak layer microstructure associated with artificial load changes

Researchers and practitioners have long utilized a variety of penetrometers to investigate the snowpack. Identifying definitive relationships between penetrometer-derived microstructural information and stability has been challenging. The purpose of this study is two-fold: 1. We propose a simple field test to establish relationships between load and penetrometer-derived microstructural estimates, 2. We utilize the SnowMicroPen (SMP) to quantify changes in weak layer residual strength and microstructural dimension associated with an artificial loading event. Our dataset is from Moonlight Basin, Montana and includes three modified loaded-column tests, each paired with 5 SMP profiles. Depth hoar comprised the targeted weak layer. Results indicate that loading caused the residual strength and rupture frequency to decrease significantly. Much like a compression test at a micro-scale, the force required for the SMP to rupture individual structures as well as the micro-scale strength decreased significantly when the slab stress was increased by artificially adding blocks of snow. A decrease in observed rupture frequency within the weak layer (or an increase in the distance between ruptured structures) also occurred after the loading event, probably because some structures within the weak layer had already failed or were so close to failing that the penetrometer could not detect their rupture. Due in part to the large difference in loads, microstructural differences between the natural and loaded columns were significant enough that only one profile would have been necessary to determine a significant difference in residual strength. Artificial removal of slab stress resulted in greater rupture forces and larger microstructures, likely due to elastic rebound.     

Measurements of localized dynamic loading in a mountain snow cover

In the majority of fatal avalanches, skiers and snowmobilers apply load to the snow cover which triggers the initial failure in a weak layer. Understanding how the stress due to the dynamic surface load transmits through the snow cover can help people avoid situations where they can trigger avalanches. Capacitive sensors were used to measure this stress within the mountain snow cover. The three main variables affecting stress transmission through the snow cover investigated in this paper are the type of loading, depth and snow cover stratigraphy. At specific depths, snowmobiles added more stress than skiers did, thus increasing the probability of initiating a fracture in a weak layer and releasing a slab avalanche. The increased penetration depth of snowmobiles into the snow cover compared to skiers was the primary reason for this increase in stress. A decrease in stress was observed with increasing depth. A decrease in stress was observed with increased snow cover hardness. Supportive surface layers created a ‘bridging effect’ that spread stress out laterally and decreased the depth to which it penetrated.     

Snowpack properties associated with fracture initiation and propagation resulting in skier-triggered dry snow slab avalanches

This study investigates snowpack properties associated with skier-triggered dry slab avalanches, with a particular view on snowpack conditions favoring fracture propagation. This was done by analyzing a data set of over 500 snow profiles observed next to skier-triggered slabs (including remotely triggered slab avalanches and whumpfs) and on skier-tested slopes that did not release a slab avalanche. The relation of the snowpack variables with fracture initiation and fracture propagation, both of which are required for skier-triggering, was investigated. Specific snowpack characteristics, including hardness difference and difference in crystal size across the failure layer, associated with skier-triggered dry slab avalanches were identified and the frequency of skier-triggering was determined. In order to assess snowpack variables favouring fracture propagation, variables from failure layers associated with skier-triggered slabs that were not remotely triggered and relatively small were contrasted with snowpack variables from failure layers of remotely triggered slab avalanches, whumpfs and relatively large slab avalanches. The properties of the slab overlying the weak layer, as well as the layer above the weak layer, were found to affect fracture propagation. Stiffer slabs were associated with large avalanches as well as whumpfs and remotely triggered avalanches. Furthermore, a correlation analysis of snowpack variables with the size and width of the investigated slab avalanches further accentuated the importance of these slab properties with regards to fracture propagation.     

Influence of snowpack layering on human-triggered snow slab avalanche release

Dry-snow slab avalanches involve the release of a cohesive slab over an extended plane of weakness. In most fatal avalanches, the triggering of the initial failure occurred by localized rapid near-surface loading by people — followed by fracture propagation. Whereas a limit-equilibrium (LE) approach to snow slope failure only takes into account slab depth, slab density and weak layer strength, it omits properties such as the stiffness of adjacent layers and the fracture propagation process. Nevertheless, LE has been applied with some success to the frequency of skier triggering, suggesting that it is relevant to failure initiation. Since field studies have shown that, for a given slab thickness, stiffer slabs are less likely to be triggered, slab properties influence failure initiation, fracture propagation or both. A highly simplified finite element (FE) model of static skier loading was used to assess the effect of slab and substratum properties on skier-induced stresses in the weak layer. Compared to a uniform slab, the skier-induced stress at the depth of the weak layer varied by a factor of 2 due to layering. In particular, the simplified FE model suggests that while stiffer layers in the slab will reduce the skier-induced stress in the weak layer, stiff layers just below the weak layer can increase the shear stress. These results were incorporated into a modified stability index and compared to stability test results. However, by taking into account snowpack layering the correlation between the modified stability index and stability test results did not improve. While our simulations suggest that less stress penetrates through stiffer slabs and thus fracture initiation is less likely, other studies show that, once initiated, fractures under stiffer slabs have high propagation propensity.     

环境相对湿度对牛皮纸垫缓冲性能影响的研究

目的 探究环境相对湿度对新型牛皮纸垫缓冲性能的影响。方法 基于静、动态压缩试验,分析叠加层数分别为2、3、4的牛皮纸垫在环境相对湿度分别为30%、50%、70%、90%条件下的缓冲性能。结果 在静态压缩试验中,牛皮纸垫静压承载能力随着环境相对湿度的增大而减弱、叠加层数的增多而增强。不同规格纸垫存在对应的湿度应力分界值,当材料所受外力小于湿度应力分界值时,其缓冲性能随着湿度的增大而提高;当外力大于湿度应力分界值时,缓冲性能随湿度的增大而减弱。一定湿度条件下,叠加层数对牛皮纸垫缓冲性能也存在影响：相对湿度为30%时,缓冲性能随叠加层数的增多而减弱;相对湿度为50%、70%、90%时,存在层数应力分界值,当材料所受外力小于层数应力分界值时,其缓冲性能随叠加层数的增多而减弱,当外力大于层数应力分界值时,缓冲性能随叠加层数的增多而增强。在动态压缩试验中,随着环境相对湿度的增加,牛皮纸垫传递给产品的最大加速度增大,缓冲性能减弱;叠加层数的增多,使其传递给产品的最大加速度减小,缓冲性能增强。结论 研究结果对牛皮纸垫缓冲包装的设计和材料选择存在潜在的指导意义。     

The effect of surface warming on slab stiffness and the fracture behavior of snow

Surface warming is among the most complex contributory factors that need to be considered when forecasting dry-snow slab avalanches. The aim of the present study is to quantify surface warming with respect to the contributing meteorological processes and to investigate in situ crack propagation propensity under conditions of surface warming. The energy fluxes at the snow surface, partly measured and partly modeled with the snow cover model SNOWPACK, were used to determine the energy input into the snow cover. Stiffness of the near‐surface layers and its changes with daytime warming were derived from penetration resistance measurements with the snow micro-penetrometer (SMP) and related to the energy input. Changes in fracture behavior were assessed with the propagation saw test (PST). An average reduction in stiffness by a factor of about 2 was observed in near-surface snow layers when the cumulative energy input at the surface exceeded 300 kJ m^− 2. At the depth of the weak layer (~ 40 cm) changes were rather small; in particular for the specific fracture energy no trend was detected with warming. Critical cut lengths tended to decrease with decreasing slab stiffness, suggesting that surface warming increases crack propagation propensity. However, the effect seems to be subtle. It is suggested that a pre-existing weakness and significant energy input are required for surface warming to promote instability.     

“互联网+”背景下中小型盆栽全纸包装设计

目的针对传统电商中小型盆栽包装存在的问题,提出全纸质包装结构设计方案。方法分析中小型盆栽产品特点,进而提出内、外箱整体嵌套的包装结构,其次进行自由跌落试验,以验证设计方案的保护性能,并针对实验过程中暴露的设计不足提出改进措施。对改进后设计分别进行跌落、振动和抗压试验,全面验证方案的可行性,还对设计方案进行成本核算,以验证其经济性。结果跌落高度为60 cm的自由跌落试验结果表明,角跌落的冲击最为强烈,其峰值加速度接近25g,但远小于盆栽产品脆值范围(90g^120g)。60 min模拟公路运输的随机振动试验证明,包装件具有良好的减振性能。空箱抗压试验表明,包装件的平均最大压溃力为727 N,可满足电商物流环境的堆码要求,而包装件实箱抗压试验的平均最大压溃力为2117 N,约为空箱最大压溃力的3倍。成本核算表明,该设计方案单套成本不高于产品总价值的5%。结论该包装方案符合绿色包装理念,具有良好的缓冲、减振和堆码性能,成本合理。     

Triggering of dry snow slab avalanches: stress versus fracture mechanical approach

This paper analyses the conditions for triggering of dry snow slab avalanches. As suggested by several Authors, we assume as a basic mechanism for avalanche triggering the mode II fracture of the weak layer lying beneath the stiff snow slab, i.e. we assume the presence of super-weak zones in the basal layer. By means of a linear elastic analysis, the shear stresses in the weak layer as well as the strain energy release rate caused by an increment of the super-weak zone are evaluated. Hence we introduce a stress failure criterion as well as an energy one. It is shown that the latter criterion can be seen as an extension of the criterion firstly proposed by McClung [McClung, D.M., 1979. Shear fracture precipitated by strain softening as a mechanism of dry slab avalanche release. Journal of Geophysical Research, 84(B7), 3519-3526.] for dry snow slab avalanche release. Finally we couple the two criteria, showing that the weak layer can fail only in a min–max band of thickness.     

On stability sampling strategy at the slope scale

Snow slope stability evaluation is often based on a single test location within a slope. However, we know that snow cover properties and stability may vary at the slope scale. Reliably estimating the slope-scale variability requires many samples, ideally more than 100. As this is unpractical, it has been proposed to perform at least two tests — about 10 m apart — on a given slope. In addition, if small column stability tests are used (such as the compression test), it seems reasonable to perform two tests at each of the two locations. Differences between the two tests at one location allow one to assess the small (or pit-) scale variability (and/or the test uncertainty), whereas differences between the pairs at different locations may hint at the slope-scale variability. We analyzed 22 small slopes each with four pairs of stability tests. In 61-75% of the cases the two stability tests at a specific location provided consistent results, depending whether we focused on the CT score or the fracture character (which was less variable). Comparing the different sampling locations on a given slope (∼ 10-15 m apart) showed that at the slope-scale the differences between sampling locations (59-75%) were similar to the differences found at the pit-scale. Rather stable slopes tended to have more pit-scale variation than rather unstable slopes. Based on our analysis, we suggest an interpretation scheme and an adjusted sampling procedure. In particular, a second pit on a slope seems only necessary if the first pit does not indicate instability. In all other cases, a second pit can reduce the number of false-stable predictions.