Strategic failure in social interaction: Evidence for expectancy disconfirmation processes.

Two experiments were conducted to test the idea that individuals may fail strategically in order to lower the expectations that others hold for their performances. In a pilot study, participants reported that, when lacking confidence, they would be particularly uncomfortable and anxious with high expectations and would attempt to lower them strategically. In Experiment 1, socially anxious and nonanxious participants were led to believe that an interviewer's high or low expectations were due to a prodigious amount of effort or to very little effort. Socially anxious individuals tended to fail strategically when confronted with high as opposed to low expectations presumably based on a prodigious amount of previous effort. In Experiment 2, individuals high or low in social anxiety were led to believe that an interviewer held either high or low expectations for them. High-anxiety participants, led to believe their initial performance would affect high expections, showed much poorer initial performance relative to all other groups. These findings show that individuals who are particularly doubtful about their ability to perform up to par will sometimes fail strategically at the outset of social interaction as a means to create lower and safer standards. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A disconfirmation bias in the evaluation of arguments.

Two experiments provided evidence for a disconfirmation bias in argument evaluation such that arguments incompatible with prior beliefs are scrutinized longer, subjected to more extensive refutational analyses, and consequently are judged to be weaker than arguments compatible with prior beliefs. The idea that people are unable to evaluate evidence independently of prior beliefs has been documented elsewhere, including in the classic study by C. G. Lord, L. Ross, and M. R. Lepper (see record 1981-05421-001) . The present findings contribute to this literature by specifying the processes by which prior beliefs affect the evaluation of evidence. The authors compare the disconfirmation model to several other models of how prior beliefs influence current judgments and present data that provide support for the disconfirmation model. Results indicate that whether a person's prior belief is accompanied by emotional conviction affects the magnitude and form of the disconfirmation bias. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Imagining stereotypes away: The moderation of implicit stereotypes through mental imagery.

Research on implicit stereotypes has raised important questions about an individual's ability to moderate and control stereotypic responses. With few strategies shown to be effective in moderating implicit effects, the present research investigates a new strategy based on focused mental imagery. Across 5 experiments, participants who engaged in counterstereotypic mental imagery produced substantially weaker implicit stereotypes compared with participants who engaged in neutral, stereotypic, or no mental imagery. This reduction was demonstrated with a variety of measures, eliminating explanations based on response suppression or shifts in response criterion. Instead, the results suggest that implicit stereotypes are malleable, and that controlled processes, such as mental imagery, may influence the stereotyping process at its early as well as later stages. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Hedonic reactions to the disconfirmation of product performance expectations: Some moderating conditions.

It is argued that affective judgments of a hedonic nature whereby individuals react adversely to an unexpected positive as well as a negative event have been observed on an infrequent basis, primarily because the facilitating conditions have not been specified. Hedonic affective reactions to the disconfirmation of expectations of a recently introduced automobile were examined under 3 conditions representing ego involvement, attitudinal commitment, and task interest. Correlations between degree of absolute disconfirmation and affective judgments made by 488 undergraduates were calculated for 8 treatment combinations. Hedonic reactions were observed only when involvement, commitment, and interest were high. A separate chi-square analysis of the correlation z transformations showed that two-thirds of the cell variance was due to treatment main effects. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Ethnic stereotypes: Meaningfulness in ethnic-group labels.

Gave 49 nursing students 2 min. to write their associations to each of 3 stimuli, English Canadians, French Canadians, and Canadian Indians, indicating the associate they had written at the end of every 30-sec period. The number of associates served as the dependent measure in a 4 * 3 * 2 analysis of variance with time interval (each of 4 30-sec intervals), ethnic-group label, and type of response (common vs. idiosyncratic) forming the bases of the classifications. Significant effects were obtained for all comparisons, but there were more common vs. idiosyncratic responses for the outgroup labels relative to the ingroup label. Results indicate that Ss tend to identify the major features of an ethnic group before they specify personality attributes, rather than directly linking personality characteristics with ethnic-group labels. A 2-stage model of ethnic stereotypes was proposed to reconcile the present results with those obtained in studies utilizing traditional assessment procedures. (French summary) (16 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Some hedonic consequences of the confirmation and disconfirmation of expectances.

In a test of the hypothesis that events which disconfirm expectancies will be perceived as unpleasant, Ss tasted a random sequence of sweet and bitter solutions. On the basis of certain signals given by the E, they developed expectancies or hypotheses about whether the next solution would be bitter or sweet. On trials when the Ss' expectancies were disconfirmed due to incorrect signals, the solutions were judged to taste more unpleasant. Thus, a bitter solution was rated more bitter; a sweet solution was rated less sweet. The results were interpreted in terms of Festinger's theory of cognitive dissonance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Ethnic stereotypes: The significance of consensus.

Investigated whether the degree of consensus in trait attribution to ethnic groups has any particular meaning to the individual. Canadian 9th and 12th graders (n = 36) were presented with traits previously found in the stereotypes about different groups, and asked to identify the ethnic group so characterized. 3 independent variables were manipulated: consensus of the attributes, age of the Ss, and the number of attributes presented. Dependent variables included the accuracy and the perceived difficulty of identification. Results indicate that the degree of consensus in the stereotype had considerable information value to the Ss. This suggests that stereotypes generally develop from information available to a community, and that the consensus noted in stereotype assessment procedures reflects the consistency of this information. (French summary) (16 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Claiming a large slice of a small pie: Asymmetric disconfirmation in negotiation.

Three studies show that negotiators consistently underestimate the size of the bargaining zone in distributive negotiations (the small-pie bias) and, by implication, overestimate the share of the surplus they claim (the large-slice bias). The authors explain the results by asymmetric disconfirmation: Negotiators with initial estimates of their counterpart's reservation price that are "inside" the bargaining zone tend to behave consistently with these estimates, which become self-fulfilling, whereas negotiators with initial "outside" estimates revise their perceptions in the face of strong disconfirming evidence. Asymmetric disconfirmation can produce a population-level bias, even when initial perceptions are accurate on average. The authors suggest that asymmetric disconfirmation has implications for confirmation bias and self-fulfilling-prophecy research in social perception. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Ethnic stereotypes: Determinants in children and their parents.

Administered a questionnaire to Canadian 9-17 yr olds (n = 157) and their parents (n = 106) to assess stereotypes about English Canadians, French Canadians, and Canadian Indians. In general, results indicate that as children grow older, their stereotypes become more consensual, less evaluative, and more similar to those in the adult community. Factor analyses of reactions to each ethnic-group label conducted separately on the children and adult samples demonstrates independent stereotype and attitude factors. Evidence was obtained which suggested 2 components of ethnic stereotypes, 1 informational and the other evaluational. Implications of this 2-factor model of ethnic stereotypes for understanding their development and change are discussed. (French summary) (19 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Changes in the marital relationship after the first baby is born: Predicting the impact of expectancy disconfirmation.

A longitudinal study of 50 couples during the transition to 1st parenthood examined how failure to confirm expectations regarding the sharing of child-care and housekeeping responsibilities influenced postpartum reports of marital satisfaction. On the basis of recent theories of expectancy confirmation processes, 5 variables representing strength and importance were identified as possible moderators. As predicted, disconfirmation of stronger and more important expectations generally led to more negative reports about the marriage. Surprisingly, some subsets of wives showed opposite reactions: less negative feelings when they were doing more than they expected. These findings were interpreted in terms of personal and role traditionality influencing the valence of the reactions to expectancy disconfirmation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The entry point of face recognition: Evidence for face expertise.

Previous studies have shown that experts (e.g., birdwatchers) are as fast to recognize objects at subordinate levels of abstraction (e.g., robin) as they are to recognize the same object at the basic level (e.g., bird). As a test of face expertise, the current study found that adults identify faces more frequently (Experiment 1) and as quickly (Experiment 2) at the subordinate level (e.g., Bill Clinton) as at the basic level (e.g., human). Whereas brief presentation (75 ms) impaired subordinate-level recognition of nonface objects, it did not impair the subordinate level recognition of faces (Experiment 3). Finally, in an identity-matching task, subordinate-level primes facilitated the matching responses of faces but not nonface objects (Experiment 4). Collectively, these results indicate that face expertise, like expert object expertise, promotes a downward shift in recognition to more subordinate levels of abstraction. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceiver self-presentational goals as moderators of expectancy influences: Ingratiation and the disconfirmation of negative expectancies.

Self-fulfilling prophecy processes enable people to confirm their negative expectancies for others. The perceiver goal of ingratiation was hypothesized to alter this behavioral dynamic and thus lead perceivers to disconfirm their negative expectancies. In an interview setting, interviewer Ss' expectancies and interaction goals were manipulated. As anticipated, "no goal" interviewers were relatively cold and challenging toward their negative-expectancy applicants; as a result, these applicants performed somewhat less favorably, consistent with interviewer expectancies. In contrast, "liking goal" interviewers were relatively warm and unthreatening toward their negative-expectancy applicants; as a result, these applicants performed favorably, disconfirming interviewer expectancies. These data support a framework in which perceiver self-presentation goals are conceptualized to moderate the expectancy-confirmation process. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Mood and the expression of ethnic stereotypes.

Four studies demonstrated that when individuals are in a negative mood, they are especially likely to attribute stereotypes that they consider to be very unfavorable to certain ethnic groups. The ethnic groups that were most consistently affected were Native Indian, Pakistani, and Arabic people. In Studies 1 and 2, it was shown that the effect is obtained with 2 different types of mood induction procedures and for individuals of various ethnic backgrounds. In Studies 3 and 4, it was found that mood strongly influences the interpretation of stereotypes typically attributed to the groups; it may also have a weaker effect on the actual type of stereotypes used. Results are discussed in terms of the effect of mood on the accessibility of relevant information and of the interpretive categories applied to information. Implications for the literature on mood effects and on intergroup perceptions are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of expectation and disconfirmation on postexposure product evaluations: An alternative interpretation.

Reviews interpretations of the effect of expectation and disconfirmation on perceived product performance. At issue is the relative effect of the initial expectation level and the degree of positive or negative disconfirmation on affective judgments following product exposure. Although the results of prior studies suggest a dominant expectation effect, it is argued that detection of the disconfirmation phenomenon may have been clouded by a conceptual and methodological overdetermination problem. To test this notion, 243 college students responded to expectation and disconfirmation measures in a 3-stage field study of reactions to a recently introduced automobile model. These measures were later related to postexposure affect and intention variables in a hierarchical analysis of variance design. Although the results support earlier conclusions that level of expectation is related to postexposure judgments, it is also shown that the disconfirmation experience may have an independent and equally significant impact. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

When stereotypes get in the way: Stereotypes obstruct stereotype-inconsistent trait inferences.

There is a growing body of evidence indicating that people spontaneously make trait inferences while observing the behavior of others. The present article reports a series of 5 experiments that examined the influence of stereotypes on the spontaneous inference of traits. Results consistently showed weaker spontaneous trait inferences for stereotype-inconsistent behavioral information than for stereotype-consistent and stereotype-neutral information. Taken together, the current results suggest that specific spontaneous trait inferences become obstructed by inhibitory processes when behavior is inconsistent with an already activated stereotype. These findings are discussed in relation to stereotype maintenance processes and recent models of attribution in social judgment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Processing auditory information: Interaction of two population stereotypes.

40 undergraduates moved a toggle switch up or down depending on the pitch (high or low) of a stimulus tone that emanated from a top or bottom speaker. Ss were instructed to move the switch up in response to the high-pitched tone and down in response to the low-pitched tone (corresponding stimulus-response mapping) while the other 20 were given the reverse tone-response rule (noncorresponding stimulus-response mapping). Reactions were faster on corresponding than on noncorresponding trials, and on the corresponding trials, Ss responded faster when the source and symbolic content of the auditory stimulus coresponded than when they did not. Results are discussed in terms of an interaction between 2 potent population stereotypes, a frequency-space stereotype and a tendency to respond toward the source of stimulation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Galvanic skin response and the secondary revision of dreams: A partial disconfirmation of Freud's dream theory.

Monitored the GSRs of 15 female undergraduates while they tape-recorded accounts of their dreams. After 5 min. Ss were asked to rerecord accounts of the same dreams. Passages from the 1st dream accounts that were told simultaneously with the occurrence of GSRs were significantly less likely than non-GSR control passages to be omitted from the 2nd accounts. GSR and control passages were equally likely to undergo substitutions in the 2nd accounts. Results are interpreted as being in partial disagreement with Freudian dream theory, which asserts that 1st-account passages that arouse anxiety are more likely than emotionally "indifferent" passages to undergo changes in the 2nd dream accounts. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Traits and social stereotypes: Levels of categorization in person perception.

A theoretical distinction is made between trait categorization in person perception and categorization by means of well-articulated, concrete social stereotypes. Three studies test the prediction that social stereotypes are both more associatively rich and more distinctive than are trait-defined categories. In Study 1, subjects sorted adjectives related to extraversion and introversion. A cluster analysis using similarity measures derived from the sorting indicated that distinct social stereotypes were associated with each trait. This supports and extends earlier findings (Cantor & Mischel, 1979). In Study 2, subjects generated attributes of the trait categories and stereotypes that emerged in Study 1. More nonredundant attributes, especially visible features, were listed for the stereotypes than for the trait categories. Study 3 elicited the explicit associative structure of traits and related stereotypes by having subjects rate the association between a series of attributes (derived from the responses in Study 2) and each category label. Results showed that social stereotypes have distinctive features that are not shared with the related trait category, whereas trait categories share virtually all of their features with related stereotypes. The implications of the trait/stereotype distinction for social information processing are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perception of variability in category development: Instance- versus abstraction-based stereotypes.

We conducted two experiments to investigate the acquisition and representation of social categories, with an emphasis on the perception of variability of group members. In Experiment 1, subjects learned about a group that was sociable and intelligent and either high or low in variability with respect to these attributes. Differences in the actual variability of group members were reflected in subjects' estimates of variability, in their tendency to generalize from the traits and goals of a single member to the entire group, and in their classification judgments of new instances, which reflected their expectations of group members' future behavior. Memory for instances of the category also played a role in these judgment tasks. In Experiment 2, subjects who first learned about the behaviors performed by group members and then about general characteristics of the group perceived the group as more variable than did those who learned the same information in the reverse order. In both experiments, we manipulated memory for specific behaviors such that either the most extreme behaviors or behaviors at the center of the distribution were most memorable. This manipulation did not affect estimates of perceived variability, suggesting that these were constructed and stored on-line rather than from a retrieved set of category exemplars. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)