AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF ORTHOGONAL MACHINING OF GLASS

An experimental study of machining glass with a geometrically defined cutting tool is presented. Orthogonal cutting conditions are employed to permit a focus on the fundamental modes of chip and surface formation. Analysis of the machined surfaces under an optical microscope identifies four regimes that are distinctly different with respect to either chip formation or surface formation. For a very small target uncut chip thickness, one on the order of the cutting edge radius, pure rubbing of the edge with no chip formation is observed. Edge rubbing imparts light scuffmarks on the machined surface giving it a frosted appearance. At a larger uncut chip thickness, ductile-mode chip formation occurs ahead of the cutting edge and a scuffed surface remains after the subsequent rubbing of the edge across the freshly machined surface. A further increase in uncut chip thickness maintains a ductile-mode of chip formation, but surface damage initiates in the form of surface cracks that grow down into the machined surface and ahead of the tool. The transition to this machining mode is highly dependent on rake angle. Increasing the uncut chip thickness further causes brittle spalling of chips leaving half-clamshell shaped divots on the surface. This experimental identification of the machining modes and their dependence on uncut chip thickness and rake angle supports the use of geometrically defined cutting tools to machine glass in a rough-semi-finish-finish machining strategy as is traditionally employed for machining metals.     

AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF ORTHOGONAL MACHINING OF GLASS

Abstract

An experimental study of machining glass with a geometrically defined cutting tool is presented. Orthogonal cutting conditions are employed to permit a focus on the fundamental modes of chip and surface formation. Analysis of the machined surfaces under an optical microscope identifies four regimes that are distinctly different with respect to either chip formation or surface formation. For a very small target uncut chip thickness, one on the order of the cutting edge radius, pure rubbing of the edge with no chip formation is observed. Edge rubbing imparts light scuffmarks on the machined surface giving it a frosted appearance. At a larger uncut chip thickness, ductile-mode chip formation occurs ahead of the cutting edge and a scuffed surface remains after the subsequent rubbing of the edge across the freshly machined surface. A further increase in uncut chip thickness maintains a ductile-mode of chip formation, but surface damage initiates in the form of surface cracks that grow down into the machined surface and ahead of the tool. The transition to this machining mode is highly dependent on rake angle. Increasing the uncut chip thickness further causes brittle spalling of chips leaving half-clamshell shaped divots on the surface. This experimental identification of the machining modes and their dependence on uncut chip thickness and rake angle supports the use of geometrically defined cutting tools to machine glass in a rough-semi-finish-finish machining strategy as is traditionally employed for machining metals.     

A GEOMETRIC ANALYSIS OF SEMI-SPIRAL CHIP MORPHOLOGY IN ORTHOGONAL MACHINING

Continuous, unbroken chips used to be a significant manufacturing problem, creating a hazardous situation for the operator and endangering the machine tool. This problem, however, is now largely solved. At this point, further work is needed to optimize well-broken chips. Once chip initial curl and spiral characteristics can be predicted, they can be optimized as part of the overall cutting process design. This may decrease the need for cutting fluids to flush the chips from the cutting region, thereby facilitating a more environmentally conscious process design. Analytic and experimental work is performed to investigate chip spiral morphology and develop a predictive orthogonal chip model. The analytic semi-spiral chip prediction model of Cook et al., [1] is extended to the constricted envelope case. Numerically developed chips are created to investigate the effects of generalized obstruction geometry. The process inputs that have statistically significant effects on chip morphology are determined to confirm the model.     

ANALYSIS OF THREE-DIMENSIONAL MACHINING USING AN EXTENDED OBLIQUE MACHINING THEORY

This paper presents an extended oblique machining theory applicable to the analysis of 3-D machining. Existing theories are evaluated to identify suitable formulations which are used with necessary modifications for predicting various quantities pertaining to cutting conditions of three dimensional machining. Actual chip flow angles extracted from measured forces, to account for the nose radius effect, are used, instead of available models, to predict important quantities such as shear plane angle, effective rake angle and shear flow angle. Experiments are conducted in the realms of conventional and high speed machining using AISI 4140 steel and aluminum 7075-T6 respectively with uncoated carbide inserts, and various process conditions pertaining to the cutting mechanics are calculated. The extended oblique machining theory is experimentally validated in predicting temperatures at the tool-chip interface and shear plane for conventional machining. Simulation results from the finite element modeling are used for verifying the shear stress and shear plane temperature predicted by the extended oblique machining theory.     

正交切削高强耐磨铝青铜的有限元分析

采用热力耦合、平面应变、连续带状切屑的切削模型模拟了高强耐磨铝青铜的正交切削加工过程。采用增量步移动刀具的方法,结合有限元分析软件Marc的网格重划分功能,模拟了刀具从初始切入到切削力和切削温度达到稳态的切削加工过程,获得了不同切削深度和切削速度下的切屑形态、温度、应力、应变和应变速率的分布。并将模拟计算得到的切削力和切削温度与试验结果进行了比较,两者具有较好的一致性。     

ANALYSIS OF THREE-DIMENSIONAL MACHINING USING AN EXTENDED OBLIQUE MACHINING THEORY

This paper presents an extended oblique machining theory applicable to the analysis of 3-D machining. Existing theories are evaluated to identify suitable formulations which are used with necessary modifications for predicting various quantities pertaining to cutting conditions of three dimensional machining. Actual chip flow angles extracted from measured forces, to account for the nose radius effect, are used, instead of available models, to predict important quantities such as shear plane angle, effective rake angle and shear flow angle. Experiments are conducted in the realms of conventional and high speed machining using AISI 4140 steel and aluminum 7075-T6 respectively with uncoated carbide inserts, and various process conditions pertaining to the cutting mechanics are calculated. The extended oblique machining theory is experimentally validated in predicting temperatures at the tool-chip interface and shear plane for conventional machining. Simulation results from the finite element modeling are used for verifying the shear stress and shear plane temperature predicted by the extended oblique machining theory.     

THE EFFECT OF ZERO-CLEARANCE LANDS IN ORTHOGONAL MACHINING IN LIGHT OF AN INTERNALLY CONSISTENT MATERIAL MODEL

Abstract

It is well known that the edge geometry of a cutting tool affects the forces measured during metal cutting. Two experimental methods have been suggested in the past to extract the ploughing (non-cutting) component from the (total) measured force: (1) an extrapolation approach; and (2) a dwell force technique. However, it has been shown that no ploughing (non-cutting, parasitic) components need be considered to analyze the cutting forces obtained using tools with a honed (radiused) edge and positive clearance. This study reports the influence of varying lengths of zero-clearance flank in combination with controlled edge radii. Analysis shows that zero-clearance flanks do introduce ploughing (non-cutting, parasitic) force components and that the magnitude of the parasitic force is a function of the length of the land. If these parasitic components are subtracted from the total forces, the analysis described by Schimmel et al. (I) may then be followed, effectively reducing the analysis to consideration of the hone alone. Thus, the effect of a zero-clearance land is strictly parasitic and does not affect the chip formation mechanisms. It was also noted that, in these tests, Coulomb's Law applies at the land-workpiece interface and that the coefficient of friction is independent of edge radius and rake angle.     

A SLIPLINE FIELD ANALYSIS OF FREE-CHIP ORTHOGONAL MACHINING WITH ADHESION FRICTION AT RAKE FACE

The paper presents slipline field solutions for metal machining assuming adhesion friction at the chip-tool interface. The field is of “indirect” type and is analyzed by the matrix method suggested by Dewhurst, Dewhurst and Collins. The range of validity of the proposed solutions is examined from the consideration of overstressing of rigid vertices in the assumed rigid regions. Rake angle and rake friction are found to be the most important variables that influence the deformation process in machining. Variation of cutting forces, chip thickness ratio, chip curvature and contact length with rake angle and friction parameters is investigated. It is observed that cutting and thrust forces and cutting ratio decrease as rake angle increases but increase as coefficient of friction increases. However, tool-chip contact length decreases as rake angle increases. As a result the average normal and shear stresses on the tool face increases as rake angle increases though, the cutting and thrust forces decrease. Results indicate that friction coefficient cannot be uniquely determined by the rake angle alone, but may have a range of allowable values for a particular value of rake angle. The theoretical results are compared with experimental data available in literature and also with those obtained by the authors from orthogonal cutting tests.     

服役过程中连续挤压模具表层显微组织演变与开裂

铜及其合金型材H13钢连续挤压轮模具常发生早期剥落失效。通过对挤压轮服役不同时间段后的显微组织观察发现:服役初期挤压轮槽表层的马氏体组织逐渐回火分解、硬度下降;随着服役时间的增加,挤压轮槽表层马氏体分解加剧、大量碳化物弥散析出,并在次表层萌生热疲劳显微裂纹;继续增加服役时间,挤压轮表层马氏体分解殆尽、碳化物严重粗化,显微裂纹向表面露头,并在熔融态铜的挤压作用下显微裂纹逐渐向基体内扩展,导致挤压轮槽开裂。     

THE EFFECT OF ZERO-CLEARANCE LANDS IN ORTHOGONAL MACHINING IN LIGHT OF AN INTERNALLY CONSISTENT MATERIAL MODEL

It is well known that the edge geometry of a cutting tool affects the forces measured during metal cutting. Two experimental methods have been suggested in the past to extract the ploughing (non-cutting) component from the (total) measured force: (1) an extrapolation approach; and (2) a dwell force technique. However, it has been shown that no ploughing (non-cutting, parasitic) components need be considered to analyze the cutting forces obtained using tools with a honed (radiused) edge and positive clearance. This study reports the influence of varying lengths of zero-clearance flank in combination with controlled edge radii. Analysis shows that zero-clearance flanks do introduce ploughing (non-cutting, parasitic) force components and that the magnitude of the parasitic force is a function of the length of the land. If these parasitic components are subtracted from the total forces, the analysis described by Schimmel et al. (I) may then be followed, effectively reducing the analysis to consideration of the hone alone. Thus, the effect of a zero-clearance land is strictly parasitic and does not affect the chip formation mechanisms. It was also noted that, in these tests, Coulomb's Law applies at the land-workpiece interface and that the coefficient of friction is independent of edge radius and rake angle.     

A SLIPLINE FIELD ANALYSIS OF FREE-CHIP ORTHOGONAL MACHINING WITH ADHESION FRICTION AT RAKE FACE

The paper presents slipline field solutions for metal machining assuming adhesion friction at the chip-tool interface. The field is of “indirect” type and is analyzed by the matrix method suggested by Dewhurst, Dewhurst and Collins. The range of validity of the proposed solutions is examined from the consideration of overstressing of rigid vertices in the assumed rigid regions. Rake angle and rake friction are found to be the most important variables that influence the deformation process in machining. Variation of cutting forces, chip thickness ratio, chip curvature and contact length with rake angle and friction parameters is investigated. It is observed that cutting and thrust forces and cutting ratio decrease as rake angle increases but increase as coefficient of friction increases. However, tool-chip contact length decreases as rake angle increases. As a result the average normal and shear stresses on the tool face increases as rake angle increases though, the cutting and thrust forces decrease. Results indicate that friction coefficient cannot be uniquely determined by the rake angle alone, but may have a range of allowable values for a particular value of rake angle. The theoretical results are compared with experimental data available in literature and also with those obtained by the authors from orthogonal cutting tests.     

MACHINING OF SODA LIME GLASS USING ABRASIVE HOT AIR JET: AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY

Abrasive Jet Machining is becoming one of the most prominent machining techniques for glass and other brittle materials. In this article, an attempt has been made to combine abrasive and hot air to form an abrasive hot air jet. Abrasive hot air jet machining can be applied to various operations such as drilling, surface etching, grooving and micro finishing on the glass and its composites. The effect of air temperature on the material removal rate applied to the process of glass etching and grooving is discussed in this article. The roughness of machined surface is also analyzed. It is found that the Material Removal Rate (MRR) increases as the temperature of carrier media (air) is increased. The results have revealed that the roughness of machined surface is reduced by increasing temperature of carrier media. The mechanism of material removal rate has been discussed with aid of SEM micrographs.     

正交车铣运动的矢量建模及表面粗糙度的理论分析

通过矢量分析,建立了正交车铣运动的矢量模型,并在此基础上给出了描述正交车铣运动的矢量表达式。建立了表面粗糙度的计算公式,并对它进行了简要的分析。     

PREDICTION AND EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF CUTTING FORCES DURING MACHINING OF PRECISION EXTERNAL THREADS

External thread cutting is a complex 3-D process in which the cutting conditions vary over the thread cutter profile. It is accepted as a mature; however, heavily experience based technology and there are few academic work published. Determining the cutting forces during machining is crucial to explain formation of the surface layer, residual stresses, selection of the most appropriate machine tool and optimizing the process. This investigation is an attempt to predict thread cutting forces by dividing the thread chip into three parts, one thread root and two side faces. Variation of the cutting parameters including the shear angle, mean cutting temperature and friction force on the flank face of the tool along the thread tool root and sides are determined. In the thread root and sides, chip compression ratios for the V-shaped single piece and separately cut chip zones are measured and cutting forces are calculated and compared for precision metric thread cutting on a SAE 4340 steel bar.     

曲面5轴加工中全局干涉检查与刀位修正

提出了一种求解曲面到刀具极值距离的方法,以解决曲面5轴数控加工中刀具与曲面的干涉问题。将曲面上的点投影到刀轴上,求出曲面到刀轴的最小距离,直接计算出刀具与曲面的干涉量,并对干涉刀位进行了修正,成功地解决了曲面与刀具的全局干涉问题。实际应用表明,该方法效率高、精度高。     

基于矢量分析的数控加工轨迹设计方法研究

描述了基于矢量分析和NURBS的数控加工轨迹设计方法。基于给定的被加工曲面在其参数域上的优化走刀方向集合,并依据标量场与梯度场的转化关系,建立了精确逼近离散方向矢量的走刀矢量场拟合模型,由此给出了数控加工轨迹的矢量表达形式。以NURBS作为发生矢量场的流函数并借助其较强的局部调控能力,通过调整控制点列,可望实现数控加工轨迹拓扑形状的整体优化调控。验证实例表明该方法能够进行复杂形状数控加工轨迹的精细设计,有利于保证精度指标下曲面加工效率的最大化。     

AN EXPERIMENTAL EVALUATION OF CUTTING TEMPERATURES DURING HIGH SPEED MACHINING OF HARDENED D2 TOOL STEEL

This paper investigates experimentally the effects of different process parameters on the cutting edge temperature during high speed machining of D2 tool steel using polycrystalline cubic boron nitride (PCBN) tools. The cutting edge temperature is measured using thermocouples. The process parameters considered are cutting speed, feed rate, nose radius, rake angle, and tool wear. The effects of different edge preparations including sharp, honed and chamfered are also investigated. The results show that increasing cutting speed and feed rate increases the cutting temperature while increasing nose radius reduces the cutting edge temperature. In addition, there is an optimum rake angle value at which minimum cutting temperature is generated.     

在线切削试验下加工表面形成的分析

本文讨论了在谐和振动和随机振动时由于刀具付切削刃的重复切削作用,使工作表面不是切削振动的简单再现,并建立了车削圆柱表面的数学表达式;深入研究了切痕条纹形成的规律和特点,指出切痕条纹的疑问不仅与切削振动的相位差有关,而且与刀具付刀刃的重复切削次数有关,阐明了工件表面两种乃至多种切痕条纹互相重迭这一使人迷惑的现象。并提出一个评定机床动态性能的新指标Q。     

断续磨削时工件表层温度场解析

建立了周期变化的移动热源模型,并引进卷积概念,推导了计算断续磨削时工件表层非稳态脉动温度场的理论公式。该公式可以包容连续磨削的情况,且可计算任意时刻的瞬态温度分布。利用推得的公式对断续磨削时的温度场及其降温机理作了深入的研究,并对关于理论公式进行了实验校核。     

A NUMERICAL INVESTIGATION OF THE CHIP TOOL INTERFACE IN ORTHOGONAL MACHINING

A plane-strain thermo-elasto-viscoplastic finite element model has been developed and used to simulate orthogonal machining of 304L stainless steel using a ceramic tool. Simulations were carried out employing temperature-dependent physical properties. The model is used to investigate the effect of process parameters, tool geometry and edge preparation on the contact mechanics at the chip/tool interface. Stress and strain within the chip and the elastic tool are presented. Variables at the chip/tool interface such as contact length, sticking and sliding regions, normal and shear stresses, and frictional heat are investigated. Plastic deformation beneath the machined surface is compared for sharp and chamfered tools.