Evolution of polyphenols in red wines from Vitis vinifera L. during aging in the bottle

The evolution of anthocyanins and pyranoanthocyanins (as measured by high-performance liquid chromatography) in young red wines from Vitis vinifera L. cv Tempranillo, Graciano and Cabernet Sauvignon (vintage 2000) from Navarra (Spain) was studied during 26 months of aging in the bottle. For the anthocyanin pigments of grape origin, a progressive decrease in their concentration, corresponding to first-order kinetics, was observed during this period. Independently of the anthocyanin structure studied, grape anthocyanins in Tempranillo wine presented twofold slower kinetics than those in Graciano and Cabernet Sauvignon wines, which exhibited a very similar disappearance rate. Acylated anthocyanins presented a slightly higher disappearance rate than the nonacylated ones, indicating the possible hydrolysis of the former into the latter forms. However, no distinction was observed in the kinetics of the different anthocyanidin forms (delphinidins, petunidins, peonidins and malvidins). These results indicate that during aging under nonoxidative conditions (bottle), the chemical reactivity of grape anthocyanins in wine is influenced by the grape variety, a factor that imposes over the stability associated with the chemical structure of each anthocyanin form. In relation to the evolution of pyranoanthocyanins, anthocyanin–pyruvic acid adducts presented a similar or lower disappearance rate than their corresponding anthocyanin precursors during the first months of aging in the bottle, while anthocyanin–vinylphenol and anthocyanin–vinylflavanol adducts did not exhibit significant variations during the whole period studied.     

Influence of chips,lees and micro-oxygenation during aging on the phenolic composition of a red Sangiovese wine

A red Sangiovese wine was aged using separate or combined different technological treatments and techniques (chips, chips and micro-oxygenation, chips and lees and micro-oxygenation), to evaluate their influence on phenolic compounds.     

Variation of pyranoanthocyanins in red wines of different varieties and vintages and the impact of pinotin A addition on their color parameters

The present study evaluates the influence of pyranoanthocyanins on the color of German red wines (Dornfelder, Cabernet Sauvignon, and Pinot Noir) from different vintages from 1996 to 2006. The wines were spiked with a solution of pinotin A raising the natural pyranoanthocyanin concentration in the wine by 2, 5, 8, 10, and 15 mg/L. The color parameters were determined by spectroscopy and the spiked wines were presented to a sensory panel in a 3-alternative forced choice (3-AFC) test for color evaluation. The comparison of treated and untreated wines clearly demonstrated that the influence of pinotin A on the overall perceived color in these red wines was not significant. The 3-AFC test showed no significant difference between Dornfelder and Cabernet Sauvignon wines, due to the increase of pinotin A. Solely in the case of some aged Pinot Noir wines small effects (i.e., strong decrease of lightness and low decrease of chromaticity) were apparent, which could be shown to be due to the dilution of the sample caused by the added pinotin A solution.     

Influence of training system on chromatic characteristics and phenolic composition in red wines

Chromatic characteristics and phenolic composition of red wines elaborated from Sousón and Brancellao grapes (Vitis vinifera L.), whose vines were trained in cordon and Guyot systems, were determined. This comparison was possible because there were no significant differences between yields for each one. Hue was the only significantly different chromatic parameter for both training systems and cultivars. In Sousón cultivar, saturation, colour intensity and red percentage were greater for Guyot system. Sousón cultivar trained in Guyot system and Brancellao cultivar trained in cordon system were characterized by higher total anthocyanin concentration. However, greater ionization index and flavanols reagent with dimethyl aminocinemaldehyde were associated with Guyot and cordon systems, respectively, independently on cultivar. Furthermore, gentisic acid, as well as malvidin-3-glucoside, petunidin-3-acetylglucoside and malvidin-3-caffeoylglucoside in less extension, permitted to differentiate training systems in both Sousón and Brancellao cultivars. Principal component analysis was also performed for a better understanding of the differences found.     

Evolution of polyphenols in red wines from Vitis vinifera L. during aging in the bottle

The evolution of non-anthocyanin phenolic compounds (as measured by high-performance liquid chromatography) in young red wines from Vitis vinifera L. cv Tempranillo, Graciano and Cabernet Sauvignon (vintage 2000) from Navarra (Spain) was studied during 26 months of aging in the bottle. Hydroxybenzoic acids and derivatives (gallic, protocatechuic, vanillic and syringic acids, and methyl and ethyl gallates), hydroxycinnamic acids and derivatives (trans-caftaric, cutaric, caffeic and p-coumaric acids, and hexose esters of trans-p-coumaric acid), stilbenes (trans- and cis-resveratrol-3-O-glucosides, and trans- and cis-resveratrol), phenolic alcohols and other related compounds (tyrosol and tryptophol), flavanols [procyanidins B1 and B2, (+)-catechin and (–)-epicatechin] and flavonols (myricetin-3-O-glucoside, quercetin-3-O-galactoside and quercetin-3-O-glucuronide, kaempherol-3-O-glucoside, myricetin and quercetin) presented different evolution patterns during aging, in some cases also being different depending on the grape variety studied. The changes that occurred during aging in the bottle were the decrease of the concentration of trans-caftaric and cutaric acids accompanied by an increase of trans-caffeic acid and, especially of trans-p-coumaric acid. The greater increase of trans-p-coumaric acid was also associated with the disappearance of p-coumaroyl-acylated anthocyanins that occurs during aging in the bottle. Flavanols registered a major decrease, with the disappearance rate being greater for the dimeric procyanidins than for the monomeric flavanols, and the order of the disappearance rate by variety was as follows: Tempranillo相似文献   

Determination of phenolic compounds in wines: Influence of bottle storage of young red wines on their evolution

Various analytical methods based on the HPLC-DAD technique were used to determine 38 phenolic compounds in red wines. While anthocyanins and hydroxycinnamic acids were determined by direct injection of wine samples, hydroxybenzoic acids, catechins, procyanidins and flavonols required an analytical pretreatment involving liquid–liquid partitioning with ethyl ether followed by solid-phase extraction on C₁₈ mini-columns. The proposed analytical methods were used to establish the phenol composition of Mencía and Brancellao, two varietal young red wines, and its influence on colour stability during storage in bottles for one year. At the end of malolactic fermentation, Mencía wine was found to contain much greater amounts of anthocyan pigments than was Brancellao wine. This resulted in a higher colour density but a weaker hue in Mencía wine than in Brancellao wine. Phenolic compounds evolved similarly in both wines during storage; changes in such compounds involved a decrease in the levels of monomeric anthocyanins, phenolic acids, epicatechin and flavonols, and an increase in those of procyanidins. The absence of a relationship between the changes in colour density and monomeric anthocyanins in both wines suggests that copigmentation and polymerization with other phenolic compounds (viz. phenolic acids, catechins and/or flavonols) prevail over degradation of the pigments.     

Influence of grape variety and their phenolic composition on vasorelaxing activity of young red wines

Red wine has been reported to exert beneficial effects in preventing cardiovascular diseases probably due to their polyphenols constituents. The vasorelaxant capacity and phenolic composition of four monovarietal young red wines Merlot, Tempranillo, Garnacha and Cabernet-Sauvignon obtained from grapes from 2004 vintage, cultivated under the same climatic and agricultural conditions, wine-making technology and storage conditions, were determined using vascular reactivity assay in rat aortic and high-performance liquid chromatography, respectively. Primary cultures of vascular smooth muscle cells from Wistar rats were also used to evaluate their survival prevention activity as well. Every studied wine present vasorelaxation effect, but the higher value corresponds to the analyzed Merlot wine, especially rich in phenolic compounds, mainly catechins and oligomeric proanthocyanidins and anthocyanin glycosides. This study further demonstrated previous investigations about the phenolic composition of wines relation with their vasorelaxation activity.     

Comparative study of phenolic compounds in Cabernet Sauvignon wines made in traditional and Ganimede fermenters

Chemical profiles of anthocyanin and non-anthocyanin phenolics of Cabernet Sauvignon wine made by two different winemaking techniques (traditional vinification and Ganimede method) were determined by high performance liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (HPLC–MS). Particularly, effect of extraction on and subsequent stability of the phenolic compounds from the end of fermentation to bottling were investigated. The results showed that the total anthocyanin content was higher in the young wines produced in the Ganimede fermenter. The anthocyanin contents in these wines subsequently decreased significantly after two years of ageing. By contrast, the traditional vinification was slightly better than the Ganimede to yield the non-anthocyanin phenolics. This indicates that the Ganimede fermenter might be suitable for the production of brightly coloured red wines for early consumption, which could save time and labour cost for industrial production of highquality wines.     

Evolution of the phenolic content of red wines from Vitis vinifera L. during ageing in bottle

The evolution of the phenolic content, as measured by spectrophotometric methodologies [total polyphenols (TP), low-polymerized polyphenols (LPP), total anthocyanins (TA), catechins (CAT), proanthocyanidins (PRO) and o-diphenols (OD)], was studied in young red wines from Vitis vinifera L. cv Tempranillo, Graciano and Cabernet Sauvignon during 26 months of ageing in bottle. Although the wines showed differences in their initial phenolic profiles, the evolution trend of the different families of phenolic compounds was similar in the wines from the three grape varieties. TA markedly decreased during ageing in bottle (43% for Tempranillo, 65% for Graciano and 66% for Cabernet Sauvignon), following a first-order kinetic. Calculation of the kinetic parameters revealed that the disappearance rate of TA was 2-fold lower for Tempranillo wine than for Graciano and Cabernet Sauvignon wines, which exhibited similar kinetics. This decrease in TA (due to the disappearance of monomeric anthocyanins), together with a increase registered in CAT and PRO (due to the cleavage of proanthocyanidins and their structural tranformations), was consistent with a decrease in LPP, suggesting the occurrence of condensation reactions during ageing in bottle. The evolution trends observed for TP and OD during ageing in bottle were the results of changes in the different groups of phenolic compounds involved in both determinations. Global phenolic determinations, usually performed in wineries, provided useful information in relation to the evolution of wine polyphenols during ageing in bottle.     

Evolution of polyphenolic compounds in red wine from Cabernet Sauvignon grapes processed by pulsed electric fields during aging in bottle

The evolution of the Folin–Ciocalteu index, colour intensity and the principal individual polyphenols throughout 12 months of aging in bottles of red wine from Cabernet Sauvignon grapes treated and untreated by pulsed electric fields (PEF) have been compared. PEF technology allowed bottling of wines with higher Folin–Ciocalteu index, colour intensity and individual polyphenols concentrations using a shorter maceration time. For both wines, aging did not affect the colour intensity, whereas the Folin–Ciocalteu index decreased. The evolution of the principal individual polyphenols during the 12 months of storage followed a similar pattern in both wines. At the end of aging, there were no significant differences observed in the content of monomeric anthocyanins between both wines, however, the content of flavan-3-ols, flavonols and hydroxycinnamic acids and derivatives was higher in PEF treated wine. These results indicate that PEF could be a suitable technology for obtaining wines with higher phenolic content or reducing the maceration time during vinification.     

Changes in the volatile composition of red wines during aging in oak barrels due to microoxygenation treatment applied before malolactic fermentation

Microoxygenation is a wine-making technique consisting in the addition of small and controlled amounts of oxygen. This study has examined the effect of this technique on the volatile composition of two red single variety wines during two successive vintages. The microoxygenation treatment was applied at the end of alcoholic fermentation and before beginning malolactic fermentation. Once the microoxygenation treatment had finished, wines were aged in new American oak barrels for 12 months. The results obtained showed that the microoxygenation treatment did not cause significant changes in the varietal and fermentation volatile compounds, however microoxygenation slowed down the extraction of some of the volatile compounds extracted from wood. A varietal and vintage effect was also observed for some of the compounds studied.     

Effect of storage on the phenolic content,volatile composition and colour of white wines from the varieties Zalema and Colombard

Different quality attributes and chemical components of wines change during storage as a function of a series of factors. Thus, in young white wines, changes in phenolics, that lead to modifications of their colour as a result of oxidation processes, are well-known. These reactions can also alter their volatile profile giving rise to the appearance of new aromas, which in some cases are undesirable. In this study we have carried out a thorough evaluation of the changes in the colour, volatiles and phenolics of Zalema and Colombard wines during 1 year of storage under different conditions of temperature and position. The phenolics and colour were more affected than was the volatiles profile and wines kept in the cold could be clearly distinguished from the others, whilst the position of the bottles onlt slightly affected the wines during storage. Results showed that the blending of Zalema wines with Colombard wines may be an appropriate means of enhancing the acidity of the former without dramatically affecting its character.     

Original article: Prediction of the colour and polyphenolic composition of the young red wines from the phenolic potential of the grapes

The phenolic potential of the grapes of Tannat, Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot produced in the south region of Uruguay was analysed in four years. The grapes of Tannat had the highest total phenolic richness (A280 = 80.0), total anthocyanin potential (ApH1 = 2540 mg L^?1) and extractable anthocyanin potential (ApH3.2 = 1269 mg L^?1), although there were important differences between the years. Representative winemaking of each vineyard was carried out. The differences verified in the grapes phenolic indexes were related to the colour and polyphenolic composition of the wines. The correlations between the phenolic indexes of the grapes and the colour and polyphenolic composition of the wines were very high. The estimation of the polyphenolic richness and the extractability of the anthocyanins of the grapes allow to improve the management of the winemaking and the prediction of the chromatic characteristics and the global polyphenolic composition of the wines.     

Changes in chromatic characteristics and phenolic composition during winemaking and shelf-life of two types of red sweet sparkling wines

The Brachetto variety is the most important aromatic red grape used for the production of sweet sparkling wines in Italy. The phenolic composition and chromatic characteristics were studied in base and red sweet sparkling wines made from this variety. The present work represents the first study on sparkling wines manufactured with Brachetto grapes. The amount of pigments extracted in the base wine was low as a consequence of the necessity for short maceration time (48 h) and low alcohol content (< 3.5% v/v). The second fermentation (prise de mousse) caused a pigment content decrease, accompanied by both a color intensity decrease and a tonality increase. In terms of phenolic compounds and chromatic characteristics, lightly sparkling wines (final bottle pressure < 1.7 bar) agreed with fully sparkling wines (final bottle pressure > 3.0 bar) at the end of the second fermentation and, therefore, the chromatic quality was independent on the winemaking methodology used, excepting for lightness and color intensity.Response surface methodology was applied to predict the effect of two independent variables, namely time and temperature of storing, on the phenolic composition and chromatic properties in both lightly and fully sparkling wines. So, it is possible to evaluate the development of two types of sweet sparkling wines during their ageing in bottle and their commercial shelf-life. A central composite design (CCD) and response surface methodology (RSM) were used for this purpose. Quantitative changes were observed in the color parameters. Although the time variable strongly influenced them, the two sparkling wines were stable enough only at low temperatures after 12 months of ageing. During the wine ageing in bottle, an increase in the formation of polymeric red pigments can be suggested taking into account the losses observed in monomeric anthocyanins. The results obtained showed that the color of fully sparkling wines was more stable than that of lightly ones and, therefore, the shelf-life of the former ones could be longer.     

The impact of oxygen exposure before and after bottling on the polyphenolic composition of red wines

The impact of moderate oxygen exposure after bottling on wine phenolic composition and colour properties has been investigated on four Grenache red wines showing high and low phenolic contents, obtained by flash release (FR) and traditional soaking (Trad), respectively, and processed with (Mox, 4.6 mg l⁻¹ O₂) or without (noMox) micro-oxygenation. Four oxygen transfer rate (OTR) conditions (0.8, 1.9, 8.0, and 11.9 μl oxygen/bottle/day) were ensured by using synthetic closures with controlled oxygen permeability and storage under controlled atmosphere. Wine phenolic composition and colour were monitored by triplicate analysis of bottles sampled at bottling (T0) and after 5 and 10 months of ageing. Phenolic composition was determined by reverse-phase HPLC-DAD–MS analysis, performed directly on the wines and after phloroglucinolysis for proanthocyanidins. Colour was evaluated by UV–visible spectrophotometry and tristimulus colorimetry. At T0, FR wines contained larger amounts of catechins, proanthocyanidins and hydroxycinnamic acids and slightly lower amounts of anthocyanins than the Trad wines while the Mox wines showed higher levels of some derived pigments, especially carboxypyranoanthocyanins, resulting from reactions of anthocyanins with pyruvate. During ageing, a progressive decrease of proanthocyanidins and hydroxycinnamic acid concentrations was observed, independently of OTR. In contrast, the loss of free SO₂, flavan-3-ol monomers and the conversion rate of anthocyanins to new pigments, especially into sulphite bleaching resistant pigments, increased with OTR levels. Among derived pigments, carboxypyranoanthocyanins levels increased both with micro-oxygenation and with OTR and can be considered as oxidation markers while flavan-3-ol–anthocyanin adducts were formed in larger amounts with lower oxygen exposure.     

Influence of the heterogeneity of grape phenolic maturity on wine composition and quality

Nowadays, consumers demand red wines with deep colour, soft tannins and fruit scents, but these wines can only be obtained from grapes with complete phenolic maturity. Diverse methods have been proposed for measuring phenolic maturity. However, all these methods only provide the average value and do not consider any possible heterogeneity. Throughout ripening, grapes were separated according to their density, which revealed the existence of a large heterogeneity. Grapes at harvest were also separated by density in three groups. The higher the density of the grapes the higher ethanol content, pH, colour intensity, total phenolic index and anthocyanin and proanthocyanidin concentrations, and the lower the titratable acidity and bitterness of the wines. When the grapes were denser the wines were also better balanced in flavour and mouthfeel sensation. These results suggest that grape heterogeneity may influence the final wine composition and quality and therefore it should be considered at harvest.     

Practical interventions that influence the sensory attributes of red wines related to the phenolic composition of grapes: a review

The phenolic composition of red wines is complex and intimately involved in colour, taste, mouth‐feel and aroma. There have been significant advances in knowledge of compounds with relatively simple structures, but understanding of those with more complex and probably diverse structures is challenging. A number of phenolic compounds may form temporary complexes with anthocyanins and/or be involved in reactions that lead to relatively stable coloured compounds. A wide range of phenolic compounds is implicated in the oral sensory attributes of red wines. Of particular importance are flavan‐3‐ols, including proanthocyanidins (PAs). The generally observed decline in the extractability of PAs during berry ripening is due to binding with cell wall material, which may occur within the developing berry and also from tissues brought into contact during processing. Studies have shown that exposure/reduced vigour results in an increasing proportion of skin PAs being extractable during wine making. Temperature and light influence anthocyanin with temperature probably being more important and the most sensitive stage being 1–3 weeks after véraison. Skin PAs are extracted earlier than those from seeds during wine‐making. Recent results suggest some rearrangement of skin and/or seed PAs occurs during vinification which involves the cleavage of large polymers or the aggregation of small ones. The polymeric material is particularly influential in wine astringency and is transformed by incorporation of anthocyanins into tannin‐like compounds during wine‐making and storage. Although some grape‐derived phenolic compounds contribute to the aroma of red wines, likely of greater importance are the effects of nonvolatile phenolics on the volatility of a diverse range of aroma compounds. Advances in analytical techniques are likely to provide greater insights into the structures and conformations of phenolic polymers and the role of cell wall material in relation to phenolic extraction and reaction during vinification. In relation to aroma, much more research is required to reveal the details of the interactions involving phenolics with volatile compounds. It seems likely that the ability to influence the relative extraction and subsequent reaction of skin and seed phenolics is important in the production of full colour, aromatic and long‐lived wines.     

Influence of winemaking techniques on the resveratrol content, total phenolic content and antioxidant potential of red wines

In this paper, the influence of winemaking techniques and cultivars on the resveratrol content, total phenolic content and antioxidant potential of red wines was studied. Wines were made from the cultivars Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon, Pinot Noir and Prokupac. Applied winemaking technologies included thermovinification and separation of must from pomace. The analysis of trans- and cis-resveratrol in wines was performed by HPLC, while the total phenolic content and antioxidant potential was determined by spectrophotometric methods. The total resveratrol content in analysed samples ranged from 0.35 to 4.85 mg/l; Merlot wines had the highest average resveratrol content, while the lowest was found for native cultivar Prokupac. Although the resveratrol content depended on grape variety, correlation between the winemaking technology applied and the resveratrol level in wines was not observed. The total phenolic content (TPC) varied from 544.4 to 1410.4 mg/l expressed as gallic acid equivalents, and the antioxidant potential, assayed by DPPH in terms of SC₅₀ (mean scavenging concentration), ranged from 0.58 to 2.91 μl/ml. Obtained results showed that thermovinificated wine samples had higher amount of phenolic compounds. Significant negative correlation was observed (p < 0.05) between the total phenolic content and SC₅₀, but there was no significant correlation (p > 0.05) between the resveratrol content and SC₅₀ or TPC. This study could contribute to the establishment of optimal conditions for producing red wines which contain more beneficial phenolic compounds.     

Differences in the phenolic composition and sensory profile between red wines aged in oak barrels and wines aged with oak chips

The aim of this study was to evaluate the similarities or differences in the phenolic composition and the sensory characteristics between wines traditionally aged in new French and American barrels for different periods of time, and wines aged for 30 days with different kinds (different geographical origin al toasting degree) of oak chips. This study was carried out with two grape varieties, Mencía and Tinta del País, and in two consecutive vintages. The results obtained indicated that it was not possible to obtain wines aged with chips with sensory characteristics similar to those aged for a long time in new barrels, independently. However, the results showed that the use of oak chips could be a good alternative for elaborating young wines with slight olfactory and gustative wood notes quite similar to wines aged in new barrels for short periods of time (about three months).