The effect of matrix composition on the properties of cellulosic fibers–polyethylene composites

The solution/precipitation method was used for the preparation of polyethylene (PE)/cellulosic fibers composites. Blends of modified linear low density PE [linear low density PE‐grafted maleic anhydride (LLDPE‐g‐MAH)] with low density PE (LDPE) were used as matrices for the aforementioned composites. Blends of LDPE with a copolymer of LDPE and acrylic acid (AA)/n‐butyl acrylate (n‐BA) [(AA/n‐BA)–LDPE] were also studied for the same purpose. The reinforcing effect of cellulosic fibers in terms of tensile strength is more enhanced when mixtures of the modified polar polymer with pure PE were used as matrices, as compared with that corresponding to matrices consisting of modified PE alone. Regarding the Izod impact strength, composites of LLDPE‐g‐MAH presented the best performance with an improvement of 135% in comparison with specimens consisting of LDPE matrix, whereas composites of (AA/n‐BA)‐LDPE matrix showed a modest improvement of their impact resistance. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2008     

Polyolefins–biofibre composites: A new way for an industrial production

Low density polyethylene (LDPE) composites based on cellulose fibres have been processed by high shear extrusion with water injection to help dispersion of fibres and release nanofibres from cellulose. Influence of extrusion parameters as shear, residence time, storage conditions of the matrix, and effect of water injection on the morphological properties of the composites have been studied using microscopy. Optimization of the extrusion parameters is necessary to reach a dispersion of the fibres. Increasing shearing forces and residence time allows limiting the presence of large aggregates of cellulose fibres. Use of powdered LDPE, even for short residence time and low shear, is efficient to produce well‐dispersed composites. Injection of water during the extrusion also improves the quality of the dispersion. However, no nanofibres are observed. The main effect is a spectacular decrease of the discoloration (yellowing) due to cellulose degradation. Mechanical properties of the composites have been investigated. Young modulus increases with cellulose content and reinforcing effect is more important above 10% by weight. For well‐dispersed composites, the extrusion parameters have no significant influence on the stiffness of the composites. However, due to the weakness of the interface, the ductility of composites is reduced compared with LDPE. POLYM. ENG. SCI., 47:467–476, 2007. © 2007 Society of Plastics Engineers.     

Tensile property and interfacial dewetting in the calcite filled HDPE, LDPE, and LLDPE composites

Mechanical properties and complex melt viscosity of unfilled and the calcite (calcium carbonate: CaCO₃) filled high density polyethylene (HDPE), low density polyethylene (LDPE), and linear low density polyethylene (LLDPE) composites using dumbbell bar and film specimens are studied. In addition, the formation of air holes between calcium carbonate and the resin matrix was investigated from the phase morphology and interfacial behavior between the above constituents upon stretching using scanning electron microscopy. The tensile stress and the complex melt viscosity of the calcite filled (50%) polyethylene composites were higher than that of unfilled ones, implying that the reinforcing effect of calcium carbonate. The crack was initiated up to first 50% elongation along the transverse direction and the formation of air holes was originated by dewetting occurring through machine direction in the interface between calcium carbonate surface and HDPE. The propagation mechanism of the air hole formation was proposed to firstly originate by dewetting up to 300% elongation, and enlarged not only by breaking of a superimposed fibril structure, but also by merging effect air holes between fibrous resin matrix. However, the crack propagation was not observed at the very beginning elongation for the calcite filled LDPE and LLDPE systems. Less fibril structure was observed in LLDPE, then LDPE composites. The observed shape and the average size of the air holes were different from system to system. This sort of different interfacial behavior and mechanical properties may arise from different configuration of polyethylene.     

Rheological and mechanical properties of composites made from wood flour and recycled LDPE/HDPE blend

The effect of compounding method is studied with respect to the rheological behavior and mechanical properties of composites made of wood flour and a blend of two main components of plastics waste in municipal solid waste, low-density polyethylene (LDPE) and high-density polyethylene (HDPE). The effects of recycling process on the rheological behavior of LDPE and HDPE blends were investigated. Initially, samples of virgin LDPE and HDPE were thermo-mechanically degraded twice under controlled conditions in an extruder. The recycled materials and wood flour were then compounded by two different mixing methods: simultaneous mixing of all components and pre-mixing, including the blending of polymers in molten state, grinding and subsequent compounding with wood flour. The rheological and mechanical properties of the LDPE/HDPE blend and resultant composites were determined. The results showed that recycling increased the complex viscosity of the LDPE/HDPE blend and it exhibited miscible behavior in a molten state. Rheological testing indicated that the complex viscosity and storage modulus of the composites made by pre-mixing method were higher than that made by the simultaneous method. The results also showed that melt pre-mixing of the polymeric matrix (recycled LDPE and HDPE) improved the mechanical properties of the wood–plastic composites.     

Recycling of poly(ethylene terephthalate) as polymer‐polymer composites

Microfibrillar reinforced composites (MFC) comprising an isotropic matrix from a lower melting polymer reinforced by microfibrils of a higher melting polymer were manufactured under industrially relevant conditions and processed via injection molding. Low density polyethylene (LDPE) (matrix) and recycled poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) (reinforcing material) from bottles were melt blended (in 30/70 and 50/50 PET/LDPE wt ratio) and extruded, followed by continuous drawing, pelletizing and injection molding of dogbone samples. Samples of each stage of MFC manufacturing and processing were characterized by means of scanning electron microscopy (SEM), wide‐angle X‐ray scattering (WAXS), dynamic mechanical thermal analysis (DMTA), and mechanical testing. SEM and WAXS showed that the extruded blend is isotropic but becomes highly oriented after drawing, being converted into a polymer‐polymer composite upon injection molding at temperatures below the melting temperature of PET. This MFC is characterized by an isotropic LDPE matrix reinforced by randomly distributed PET microfibrils, as concluded from the WAXS patterns and SEM observations. The MFC dogbone samples show impressive mechanical properties—the elastic modulus is about 10 times higher than that of LDPE and about three times higher than reinforced LDPE with glass spheres, approaching the modulus of LDPE reinforced with 30 wt% short‐glass fibers (GF). The tensile strength is at least two times higher than that of LDPE or of reinforced LDPE with glass spheres, approaching that of reinforced LDPE with 30 wt% GF. The impact strength of LDPE increases by 50% after reinforcement with PET. It is concluded that: (i) the MFC approach can be applied in industrially relevant conditions using various blend partners, and (ii) the MFC concept represents an attractive alternative for recycling of PET as well as other polymers.     

Effect of microfiber reinforcement on the morphology,electrical, and mechanical properties of the polyethylene/poly(ethylene terephthalate)/carbon nanotube composites

In situ microfiber reinforced conductive polymer composites consisting of high‐density polyethylene (HDPE), poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET), and multiwalled carbon nanotube (CNT) were prepared in a twin screw extruder followed by hot stretching of PET/CNT phase in HDPE matrix. For comparison purposes, the HDPE/PET blends and HDPE/PET/CNT composites were also produced without hot stretching. Extrusion process parameters, hot‐stretching speed, and CNT amount in the composites were kept constant during the experiments. Effects of PET content and molding temperature on the morphology, electrical, and mechanical properties of the composites were investigated. Morphological observations showed that PET/CNT microfibers were successfully formed in HDPE phase. Electrical conductivities of the microfibrillar composites were in semi‐conductor range at 0.5 wt% CNT content. Microfiber reinforcement improved the tensile strength of the microfibrillar HDPE/PET/CNT composites in comparison to that of HDPE/PET blends and HDPE/PET/CNT composites prepared without hot stretching. POLYM. ENG. SCI., 2010. © 2010 Society of Plastics Engineers     

An investigation for the effect of recycled matrix on the properties of textile waste cotton fiber reinforced (T‐FRP) composites

The main objective of this research is to study the effect of recycled low density polyethylene (r‐LDPE) matrix on the tensile, impact, and flexural properties of the novel textile waste cotton fiber reinforced (T‐FRP) composites. For this purpose, the T‐FRP composites were manufactured by using two different matrix types; namely, virgin LPDE (v‐LDPE) and r‐LDPE, with different waste cotton fiber content. All composites were compatibilized by maleic anhydride‐LDPE (MA‐LDPE) in order to increase the interfacial adhesion between fibers and matrices. Differential scanning calorimetry, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, dynamic mechanical analyzer studies were performed in order to characterize the materials. The results have shown that best tensile and flexural properties have been obtained from the composites with the content of 30 wt% cotton fiber, 5 wt% maleic anhydride‐LDPE, and 65 wt% recycled LDPE matrix. However, the impact properties of the composites were decreased drastically compared to the pure LDPE matrix. POLYM. COMPOS., 38:1231–1240, 2017. © 2015 Society of Plastics Engineers     

Preparation and properties of polyethylene terephthalate/polyethylene/near infrared reflective pigment composites

Polyethylene terephthalate/high density polyethylene (PET/HDPE) composites containing a near infrared reflective (NIR, nickel antimony titanium yellow rutile) pigment was prepared using ethylene‐glycidyl methacrylate‐vinyl acetate (EGMA‐VA) as a compatibilizer to increase the infrared reflection of PET/HDPE and limit the thermal heat accumulation in light of environmental and energy conservation concerns. HDPE was premixed with NIR to form N‐HDPE masterbatch. A good interfacial bonding between PET matrix and HDPE dispersed phase with the help of compatibilizer was confirmed through Fourier transform‐infrared spectra, scanning electron microscopy, and torque rheometer. For PET/N‐HDPE composites, the major X‐ray diffraction peaks and melting behaviors remained unchanged, indicating the limited alternation of crystalline structure for the composite systems with or without compatibilizer. The observed increment in the crystallization temperature of PET for the investigated PET/N‐HDPE composites was mainly due to the nucleation role of both inorganic NIR and HDPE. Tensile strength and elongation at break for compatibilized cases at various N‐HDPE contents conferred higher values than those of the corresponding counterparts without compatibilizer. Yet, Young's modulus for compatibilized systems was about 40% lower than that for systems without compatibilizer, attributed to the rubbery nature of EGMA‐VA. With the inclusion of NIR into HDPE to form PET/N‐HDPE composites with or without EGMA‐VA compatibilizer, the values of reflectance increased to a great degree. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2014 , 131, 40830.     

Effects of crystallization on dispersion of carbon nanofibers and electrical properties of polymer nanocomposites

Polymer nanocomposites filled with low volume fractions of carbon nanofibers (CNFs) were prepared by melt‐compounding. Three types of polymers with different crystallization behavior, i.e., weakly‐crystallized low density polyethylene (LDPE), strongly crystallized high density polyethylene (HDPE) and amorphous polystyrene (PS), were selected as matrices for the nanocomposites. The effects of polymer crystallization on the dispersion of CNFs were examined. Optical and electron microscopic examinations revealed that the dispersion of CNFs in the nanocomposite matrices was strongly depended on the crystallization behavior of polymer matrices. The CNFs were found to disperse uniformly in weakly crystallized LDPE and amorphous PS matrices, but agglomerated in HDPE due to its strong crystallization tendency. Such a distinct dispersion behavior of CNFs in polymers had a profound effect on the electrical properties of the nanocomposites investigated. The PS/CNF nanocomposites exhibited the lowest percolation threshold. The HDPE/CNF nanocomposites showed the largest percolation threshold due to the CNF agglomeration within the amorphous phase of HDPE. POLYM. ENG. SCI., 48:177–183, 2008. © 2007 Society of Plastics Engineers     

Improving the properties of LDPE/glass fiber composites with silanized-LDPE

Low density polyethylene (LDPE) is a widely used thermoplastic. The dispersion of inorganic fillers in thermoplastic matrices such as polyethylene has been largely employed to improve some of its properties. However, interaction between both components is a major issue so the presence of a coupling agent is usually necessary to increase the interaction among the phases. In this study, LDPE chemically modified with vinyltriethoxysilane (VTES) was used as a coupling agent in glass fiber-reinforced LDPE. The composites were prepared in a mixing chamber and subsequently analyzed by tensile tests, rotational rheometry, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The mechanical properties were significantly increased by the use of small amounts of the coupling agent. Moreover, the rheological behavior and the SEM micrographs showed higher interaction between the matrix and the reinforcing phase in the composites containing LDPE modified with VTES, confirming the suitability of using this coupling agent in these systems. POLYM. COMPOS., 2009. © 2008 Society of Plastics Engineers     

Polypropylene/low density polyethylene blend matrices and short glass fibers based composites. I. Mechanical degradation of fibers as a function of processing method

The fiber length degradation during compounding (two-roll milling and twin-screw extrusion) of glass fiber and polypropylene (PP)/low density polyethylene (LDPE) blend matrices based composites was investigated. The effect of LDPE percentage and fiber content on fiber length were studied using a semiautomatic image analysis system. Two-roll milling causes a more severe attrition of the fibers than twin-screw extrusion. In the first case, the higher the LDPE percentage in the polymer matrix, the larger the final fiber length. Both methods lead to a broader fiber length distribution as LDPE percentage increases. The effect of fiber content is opposite to that of the LDPE percentage, but in the case of twin-screw extrusion it is less noticeable, During the injection molding of the composites a slight decrease of the final fiber length takes place. This decrease depends on the initial fiber length, the effect being more pronounced for longer fibers.     

Mechanical Properties of High Density Polyethylene/Modified Calcium Silicate Composites

High density polyethylene (HDPE)/calcium silicate (CS) composites containing vinyltriethoxysilane treated calcium silicate contents varying from 0–10 phr were prepared by injection molding. Thus obtained HDPE/CS composites were characterized by the thermal analyses. The mechanical properties were evaluated. It was found that the incorporation of the calcium silicate into high density polyethylene resulted in a slight increase in the yield stress (6.85–11.76 %) as well as tensile strength (7.02–12.84 %). However, the elongation at yield and the elongation at break decreased by 9.23–24.87 % and by 11.03–60.73 %, respectively, with the increasing calcium silicate content. The vinyltriethoxysilane modified CS exhibited the dispersibility in HDPE matrix arising from the compatibility between high density polyethylene matrix and the disperse phase (treated calcium silicate particles) which led to the effect on the mechanical properties of the composites. It could be concluded that the modified calcium silicate played a role in reinforcing the mechanical properties into the high density polyethylene.     

Effect of the various coupling agents on the mechanical and physical properties of thermoplastic‐bagasse fiber composites

Various types of bonding agents have been tried with blends of bagasse fibers and some thermoplastics such as low‐density polyethylene (LDPE), high‐density polyethylene (HDPE), polystyrene (PS), polypropylene (PP), and polyvinyl chloride (PVC). These bonding agents are, namely, pentaerythritol tetracrylate (PETA), 1,6 hexandiol diacrylate (HDA), and dicumyl peroxide (DCP). In addition, a traditional coupling agents 3‐aminopropyltrimethoxy silane (AMPS) and di‐aminopropyltrimetoxy silane (DAMPS) were included for comparison. Electron beam (EB) irradiation is applied only for LDPE and HDPE at 40 and 10 kGy, respectively, before mixing with bagasse fibers. The data obtained reveal that incorporation of bonding agents remarkably increases the mechanical properties for all samples under investigation; the maximum improvement is observed in LDPE followed by HDPE, PP, PS, and PVC composites. Also, the physical properties enhanced but not at the same degree as mechanical properties. Among the tested bonding agents, it was found that PETA, DCP followed by DAMPS have highest efficiency in LDPE, whereas in case of HDPE, EB radiation was higher than PETA followed by DCP. PETA was superior in case of PS composites. Furthermore, PETA and HDA experienced higher efficiency than DAMPS and AMPS in case of PP and PVC composites. Comparison between the properties of thermoplastic composites and medium density fiberboard (MDF) reveals that most of the properties of thermoplastics composites are better than MDF. However, modulus of rupture of MDF was found to be slightly higher than thermoplastics except for PVC composite. POLYM. COMPOS., 2008. © 2008 Society of Plastics Engineers     

Mechanical and Tribological Properties of PET/HDPE MFCs

Microfibrillar reinforced composites (MFCs) were prepared from polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and high density polyethylene (HDPE). The mechanical and tribological properties of the MFCs were investigated. Static and dynamic mechanical tests revealed that the tensile strength, tensile modulus, and dynamic modulus of the HDPE matrix were improved greatly. Wear mechanism analysis demonstrated that the ability of HDPE to form transfer films on the counter rings was strengthened, which was responsible for the variation of friction and wear properties of the matrix.     

Interfacial adhesion in jute‐polyolefin composites

The interfacial adhesion between four different forms of jute fibers (sliver, bleached, mercerized and untreated) and polyolefinic matrices (LDPE and PP) was studied, as a critical factor affecting the mechanical behavior of these composites. The fiber‐matrix adhesion was estimated by means of the critical fiber length (l_c) and the stress transfer ability parameter (τ); such parameters were obtained by Single Fiber Composite (SFC) tests. Tests were carried out to evaluate the mean tensile strength of the fibers, the mean critical fiber lengths and the stress transfer ability parameter for every fiber‐matrix combination, according to Weibull's statistical method. Thermal‐mechanical characterization of the fibers was also carried out to evaluate the resistance to processing conditions. A limited degradation of strength was observed, which, however, does not preclude the use of jute fibers as reinforcing means in polyolefin based composites. It was found that the adhesion was better in PP‐jute composites than in LDPE‐jute composites. In both cases the results showed that the sliver jute and the untreated jute had better adhesion to both matrices than had the bleached and the mercerized fibers. With both matrices the interface adhesion was in the order: mercerized < bleached < untreated = sliver.     

The comparison of properties of (rubber tree seed shell flour)‐filled polypropylene and high‐density polyethylene composites

The effect of varied rubber tree seed shell flour (RSSF) filler loadings on processing torque, mechanical, thermal, water absorption, and morphological properties of polypropylene (PP) and high‐density polyethylene (HDPE) composites has been studied. The addition of RSSF in the composites increased the stabilization torque in both PP‐ and HDPE‐based composites. Tensile strength, elongation at break, flexural strength, and impact strength show significant reduction when higher loading of RSSF was incorporated, while tensile modulus and flexural modulus were improved. The phenomenon was noted for both matrices, PP and HDPE, but HDPE‐based composites showed clear effects on the reduction of the mechanical properties compared with RSSF‐filled PP. Scanning electron microscopy of tensile fracture specimens revealed the degree of dispersion of RSSF filler in the matrices. At higher filler loadings, agglomerations and poor dispersion of RSSF particles were spotted, which induce the debonding mechanism of the system. Thermogravimetric analysis thermograms showed that both PP‐ and HDPE‐based composite systems with higher RSSF content have higher thermal stability, initial degradation temperature, degradation temperature, and total weight loss. Water absorption ability of the composites increases as the filler loading increases for both matrices. J. VINYL ADDIT. TECHNOL., 22:91–99, 2016. © 2014 Society of Plastics Engineers     

Crystalline morphology at the interface between polyethylene‐grafted glass and polyethylene

Adhesion measurements performed on a polyethylene (PE)‐grafted‐glass interface showed that the structure of the PE free chains (matrix) was an important parameter. The fracture energy was higher for interfaces prepared from a linear matrix, such as high‐density polyethylene (HDPE), than for those from a branched PE [low‐density polyethylene (LDPE)]. Therefore, the microstructure of the grafted PE/PE matrix interface or interphase was investigated as a function of the molar masses of the connectors and the structure (linear or branched) of the free PE matrix chains. As the grafted chains were linear, a cocrystalline structure with free chains of the HDPE matrix was generated. PE connecting chains led to a low capacity for cocrystallization with LDPE. Cocrystallization was studied with blends based on functionalized PE chains and PE matrices. These blends were assumed to be miscible, as substantiated by a single differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) peak. The DSC analyses were confirmed by wide‐angle X‐ray scattering, which revealed a crystalline orientation of the chains in the interphase, that is, in the vicinity of the glass surface. © 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 87: 214–229, 2003     

Creep damage resistance of ceramic–matrix composites

The tensile creep and creep fracture properties in air at 1300 °C are documented for two ceramic fibre-reinforced ceramic–matrix composites (CFCMCs). These recently developed materials were produced with woven bundles of Hi-Nicalon™ fibres reinforcing either A1₂O₃ or enhanced SiBC matrices, allowing data comparisons to be made with similar CFCMCs having different fibre–matrix combinations. The results confirm that the longitudinal fibres govern the rates of strain accumulation and crack growth, but the fracture characteristics are determined by fibre failure caused by oxygen penetration as matrix cracks develop. The analysis then suggests that carbon fibre-reinforced doloma–matrix composites could offer a combination of creep-resistant fibres and creep damage-resistant matrices suitable for long-term load-bearing service in high-temperature oxidizing environments.     

Investigation of polyethylene/sisal whiskers nanocomposites prepared under different conditions

In this work, sisal nanowhiskers (SNWs) extracted from sisal fibers were used to reinforce high‐density polyethylene (HDPE) and low‐density polyethylene (LDPE). The nanocomposites were prepared by solution casting from toluene and melt mixing, both followed by melt pressing. In the case of melt mixing, the surfaces of the SNW were also chemically modified with 1 phr of vinyl triethoxy silane to improve their dispersibility and compatibility with the matrices. The SNW had an average length of 197 nm and diameter of 12 nm, and a crystallinity index of 89%. Fourier transform infrared confirmed the surface chemical modification of the SNW. The whiskers were fairly well dispersed in the matrices, regardless of the treatment or preparation method. The presence of whiskers, as well as nanocomposite preparation method, had an observable influence on the storage modulus of LDPE, but very little influence on that of HDPE. There was, however, no significant influence on the degradation behavior of both polymers. The crystallization behavior of the polymers was found to strongly depend on their morphologies. The melting and crystallization behavior of the LDPE nanocomposites were almost unchanged, while an increase in crystallinity was observed for all the HDPE nanocomposites. The tensile properties depended on the type of polymer, the treatment, and the preparation method. Generally there was an improvement in tensile modulus, and a decrease in elongation at break, but the stress at break only improved for the HDPE nanocomposites. POLYM. COMPOS., 35:2221–2233, 2014. © 2014 Society of Plastics Engineers     

Preparation,structural development,and mechanical properties of microfibrillar composite materials based on polyethylene/polyamide 6 oriented blends

The preparation of microfibrillar composites (MFCs) based on oriented blends of polyamide 6 (PA6) and high‐density polyethylene (HDPE) is described. By means of conventional processing techniques, the PA6 phase was transformed in situ into fibrils with diameters in the upper nanometer range embedded in an isotropic HDPE matrix. Three different composite materials were prepared through the variation of the HDPE/PA6 ratio with and without a compatibilizer: MFCs reinforced by long PA6 fibrils arranged as a unidirectional ply; MFCs containing middle‐length, randomly distributed reinforcing PA6 bristles; and a nonoriented PA6‐reinforced material in which the PA6 phase was globular. The evolution of the morphology in the reinforcing phase (e.g., its visible diameter, length, and aspect ratio) was followed during the various processing stages as a function of the blend composition by means of scanning electron microscopy. Synchrotron X‐ray scattering was used to characterize selected unidirectional ply composites. The presence of transcrystalline HDPE was demonstrated in the shell of the reinforcing PA6 fibrils of the final MFCs. The impact of the compatibilizer content on the average diameter and length of the fibrils was assessed. The influence of the reinforcing phase on the tensile strength and Young's modulus of the various composites was also evaluated. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2010