A new Peltier sensor for measuring the thermal conductivity offluids

This paper describes a new sensor and method to measure the thermal conductivity of many fluids. The principal advantage of the sensor is self-compensation against temperatures brought about by an appropriate choice of materials. Moreover, because the sensor uses both the Peltier and Seebeck effects, measurements can be carried out with accuracy according to an average temperature increase of the device lower than 5 K. Operation of the device brings about a very low Joule power (5 mW). A coherent design rationale is formulated and the various stages in the technical development of the sensor are delineated. Several cases are discussed with a view toward increasing the applicability of the method. Notable applications include thermal conductivity gauges for measuring pressures in high-vacuum systems, tank gauging for liquids featuring fire hazards, and low-velocity measurements occurring in natural convection mechanisms. It is expected that the versatility of the device will result in a wide variety of industrial applications     

Measurement of the Thermal Conductivity of Stainless Steel AISI 304L Up to 550 K

New measurements of the thermal conductivity of stainless steel AISI 304L over the temperature range 300 to 550 K are reported. To perform the measurements, the transient hot-wire technique was employed, with a new wire sensor. The sensor makes use of a soft silicone paste material and of two thin polyimide films, between the hot wires of the apparatus and the stainless steel specimen. The transient temperature rise of the wire sensor is measured in response to an electrical heating step over a period of 40 s to 2 s, allowing an absolute determination of the thermal conductivity of the solid, as well as of the polyimide film and the silicone paste. The method is based on a full theoretical model with equations solved by a two-dimensional finite-element method applied to the exact geometry. At the 95% confidence level, the standard deviation of the thermal conductivity measurements is 0.6%, while the standard uncertainty of the technique is less than 1.5%.     

Measurements of the Thermal Conductivity of Molten Lead Using a New Transient Hot-Wire Sensor

The paper reports new measurements of the thermal conductivity of molten lead at temperatures from 600 to 750 K. The measurements have been carried out with an updated version of a modified transient hot-wire (THW) method, where the hot-wire sensor is embedded within an insulating substrate with a planar geometry. However, unlike previous sensors of the same type, the updated sensor works with the hot-wire divided into three thermally isolated parts. The operation of this sensor has been modeled theoretically using a finite-element (FE) analysis and has subsequently been confirmed by direct observation. The new sensor is demonstrated to have a higher sensitivity and a better signal-to-noise ratio than earlier sensors. Molten lead is used as the test fluid. It has the lowest thermal conductivity of any material we have yet studied. This allows us to probe the limits of our sensor system for the thermal conductivity of high-temperature melts. It is estimated that the uncertainty of the measurements is 3% over the temperature range studied. The results are used to examine the application of the Wiedemann–Franz (W-F) relationship.     

Predicting the thermal conductivity of aluminium alloys in the cryogenic to room temperature range

Aluminium alloys are being used increasingly in cryogenic systems. However, cryogenic thermal conductivity measurements have been made on only a few of the many types in general use. This paper describes a method of predicting the thermal conductivity of any aluminium alloy between the superconducting transition temperature (approximately 1 K) and room temperature, based on a measurement of the thermal conductivity or electrical resistivity at a single temperature. Where predictions are based on low temperature measurements (approximately 4 K and below), the accuracy is generally better than 10%. Useful predictions can also be made from room temperature measurements for most alloys, but with reduced accuracy. This method permits aluminium alloys to be used in situations where the thermal conductivity is important without having to make (or find) direct measurements over the entire temperature range of interest. There is therefore greater scope to choose alloys based on mechanical properties and availability, rather than on whether cryogenic thermal conductivity measurements have been made. Recommended thermal conductivity values are presented for aluminium 6082 (based on a new measurement), and for 1000 series, and types 2014, 2024, 2219, 3003, 5052, 5083, 5086, 5154, 6061, 6063, 6082, 7039 and 7075 (based on low temperature measurements in the literature).     

A Four-Terminal Water-Quality-Monitoring Conductivity Sensor

In this paper, a new four-electrode sensor for water conductivity measurements is presented. In addition to the sensor itself, all signal conditioning is implemented together with signal processing of the sensor outputs to determine the water conductivity. The sensor is designed for conductivity measurements in the range from 50 mS/m up to 5 S/m through the correct placement of the four electrodes inside the tube where the water flows. The implemented prototype is capable of supplying the sensor with the necessary current at the measurement frequency, acquiring the sine signals across the voltage electrodes of the sensor and across a sampling impedance to determine the current. A temperature sensor is also included in the system to measure the water temperature and, thus, compensate the water-conductivity temperature dependence. The main advantages of the proposed conductivity sensor include a wide measurement range, an intrinsic capability to minimize errors caused by fouling and polarization effects, and an automatic compensation of conductivity measurements caused by temperature variations.     

Feasibility Study of a Novel Technique for Measurement of Liquid Thermal Conductivity with a Micro-beam Sensor

A new method was proposed to measure the thermal conductivity of liquids with infinitesimal samples, which are much smaller than those required in conventional methods. The method utilizes a micro-beam-type MEMS sensor fabricated across a trench on a silicon substrate. Numerical analysis of heat conduction within and around a uniformly heated sensor showed that the temperature of a 10 μm long sensor reached a steady state within approximately 0.1ms, after the start of heating. It was also revealed that the average temperature of the sensor at the steady state was higher in liquids with lower thermal conductivity. These results demonstrate a new idea of measuring the thermal conductivity of liquids within an extremely short time at a steady state before the onset of natural convection.     

金刚石薄膜压力传感器的研究

金刚石的许多性质使它成为微结构为器件的优异材料。现已证明金刚石薄膜有压阻效应,这个性能打开了金刚石薄膜在压力传感器领域的应用,研究了金刚石薄膜的欧姆接触,热敏特性和压阻特性,研究表明金刚石薄膜可制成适于高温工作的传感器。     

A Low-Cost Wireless Sensor System and Its Application in Dental Retainers

In this paper, a wireless interrogable sensor device based on an ultra low-power microcontroller for data collection and a radio frequency identification (RFID) interface for data transmission is presented. Wireless sensor systems utilizing RFID transponders offer a new and exciting means of measurement and identification suitable for many biomedical applications. For the majority of these applications, small, inexpensive radio request sensor systems are desirable. In this paper, an ultra-low-power and low-cost wireless temperature data logger system is presented with its application in observing dental retainer use. For this purpose, the retainer's ambient temperature is measured by an integrated sensor and recorded using a microcontroller which acts like a temperature data logger storing the thermal history of several months. For a self powered wireless data transmission from the sensor to the interrogation unit a RFID transponder, operating in the 13.56 MHz ISM band, is used. The presented sensor system includes hard- and software power saving modes reducing the sensor idle current consumption to 1 $mu$ A. This allows a battery powered operation of the device for up to two years. For dental and biomedical applications, the device is hermetically sealed using a biocompatible polymeric encapsulation. Results of the first clinical trials observing the patient's dental retainer usage by a set of retainers equipped with the RFID temperature sensor/data logger device are presented. The stored temperature values are analyzed and a clear temperature characteristic indicating the retainer usage was found.      

Quantitative Thermal Microscopy Measurement with Thermal Probe Driven by dc+ac Current

Quantitative thermal measurements with spatial resolution allowing the examination of objects of submicron dimensions are still a challenging task. The quantity of methods providing spatial resolution better than 100 nm is very limited. One of them is scanning thermal microscopy (SThM). This method is a variant of atomic force microscopy which uses a probe equipped with a temperature sensor near the apex. Depending on the sensor current, either the temperature or the thermal conductivity distribution at the sample surface can be measured. However, like all microscopy methods, the SThM gives only qualitative information. Quantitative measuring methods using SThM equipment are still under development. In this paper, a method based on simultaneous registration of the static and the dynamic electrical resistances of the probe driven by the sum of dc and ac currents, and examples of its applications are described. Special attention is paid to the investigation of thin films deposited on thick substrates. The influence of substrate thermal properties on the measured signal and its dependence on thin film thermal conductivity and film thickness are analyzed. It is shown that in the case where layer thicknesses are comparable or smaller than the probe–sample contact diameter, a correction procedure is required to obtain actual thermal conductivity of the layer. Experimental results obtained for thin SiO\(_{\mathrm {2}}\) and BaTiO\(_{\mathrm {3 }}\)layers with thicknesses in the range from 11 nm to 100 nm are correctly confirmed with this approach.     

一种新的测量半球全波发射率的动态技术

本章介绍了一种用于半球全波发射率测量的动态技术 .它需要已知热容量和热传导率的准确的资料 .对在自然冷却过程中所测量的样品的温度分布的分析表明 ,高温度梯度区域 (样品的两端部分 )是测量热传导率的最好区域 ,而低温度梯度区域 (样品的中间部分 )是测量半球全波发射率的最佳范围 .讨论了这种新的测量方法及一些初步的实验结果 .     

New Transient Hot-Bridge Sensor to Measure Thermal Conductivity, Thermal Diffusivity, and Volumetric Specific Heat

A high sensitivity thermoelectric sensor to measure all relevant thermal transport properties has been developed. This so-called transient hot bridge (THB) decidedly improves the state of the art for transient measurements of the thermal conductivity, thermal diffusivity, and volumetric specific heat. The new sensor is realized as a printed circuit foil of nickel between two polyimide sheets. Its layout consists of four identical strips arranged in parallel and connected for an equal-ratio Wheatstone bridge. At uniform temperature, the bridge is inherently balanced, i.e., no nulling is required prior to a run. An electric current makes the unequally spaced strips establish an inhomogeneous temperature profile that turns the bridge into an unbalanced condition. From then on, the THB produces an offset-free output signal of high sensitivity as a measure of the properties mentioned of the surrounding specimen. The signal is virtually free of thermal emf’s because no external bridge resistors are needed. Each single strip is meander-shaped to give it a higher resistivity and, additionally, segmented into a long and short part to compensate for the end effect. The THB closely meets the specific requirements of industry and research institutes for an easy to handle and accurate low cost sensor. As the key component of an instrument, it allows rapid thermal-conductivity measurements on solid and fluid specimens from 0.02 to 100 W· m⁻¹·K⁻¹ at temperatures up to 250°C. Measurements on some reference materials and thermal insulations are presented. These verify the preliminary estimated uncertainty of 2% in thermal conductivity.     

Thermal Conductivity of Polymethyl Methacrylate (PMMA) and Borosilicate Crown Glass BK7

The thermal conductivity of polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) and borosilicate crown glass BK7 has been studied. The transient hot-wire technique has been employed, and measurements cover a temperature range from room temperature up to 350 K for PMMA and up to 500 K for BK7. The technique is applied here in a novel way that minimizes all remaining thermal-contact resistances. This allows the apparatus to operate in an absolute way and with very low uncertainty. The method makes use of a soft silicone paste material between the hot wires and the solid under test. Measurements of the transient temperature rise of the wires in response to an electrical heating step over a period of 20 μs up to 5 s allow an absolute determination of the thermal conductivity of the solid, as well as of the silicone paste. The method is based on a full theoretical model with equations solved by a two-dimensional finite-element method applied to the exact geometry. At the 95% confidence level, the standard deviations of the thermal conductivity measurements are 0.09% for PMMA and 0.16% for BK7, whereas the standard uncertainty of the technique is less than 1.5%.     

Accurate measurement of the thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity of toluene andn-heptane

Accurate and simultaneous measurements of the thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity of toluene andn-heptane were made with an improved transient hot-wire method by using a transfer function having a feedback loop, in the temperature range of 0 to 45°C at atmospheric pressure. The accuracy of the empirical equations as a function of temperature is estimated to be 0.4 to 0.5% for the thermal conductivity and about 4% for the thermal diffusivity. Paper presented at the Fourth Asian Thermophysical Properties Conference, September 5–8, 1995, Tokyo, Japan.     

Thermal diffusivity of solids with a low expansion coefficient: A dilatometric technique

A dilatometric method is presented, suitable to obtain both thermal diffusivity and conductivity of low-conducting solids with a low expansion coefficient. The repeatibility of the measurements of thermal conductivity is 3%, whereas that for diffusivity is 5 %. Data for fused silica at room temperature are given, consistent with those reported in the literature. Since the method is based on detecting the thermal expansion of a copper disk in thermal contact with the specimen, its range of applicability is linked to the sensitivity by which the dilation of copper can be measured: no difficulty arises between liquid nitrogen and 1000°C.     

Sensor for Monitoring the Moisture in Porous Materials

A new principle of a sensor for monitoring of moisture in porous materials is presented. The sensor utilizes changes of the thermal conductivity of a porous structure when pores are filled with the air/vapor, water, or ice depending on thermodynamic conditions. A hot-ball method is used for measuring the thermal conductivity. The moisture sensor is made of the cylindrical core drilled from the parent material. The signal of the sensor is not sensitive to ionic radicals of the pore medium. The method of sensor calibration is presented, as well. Then the moisture sensor (hot ball) is inserted back into the drilled hole of the material to ensure that the porous structure of both the sensor and the investigated material are identical. Sensors can be made of porous materials in the range of porosities from 0.3 % up to 70 %. A simple device is constructed that allows monitoring of moisture in real conditions.     

Inductively coupled surface acoustic wave device for sensor application

We present a new type of surface acoustic wave device for sensor applications where the need for bonding wires is eliminated. Instead the device is coupled inductively to the RF circuitry. The impedance of such devices and the necessary matching have been investigated both theoretically and experimentally. The devices have repeatedly been operated at temperatures up to 400 degrees C and have shown a good temperature resistance. In order to test the suitability of the new concept for sensor applications, several devices with an operating frequency of 363 MHz were coated with copper phthalocyanine for the detection of NO(2). From these measurements we derive a detection limit of these devices below 1 ppb for NO(2).     

Design of a Calibration System for Heat Flux Meters

Accurate heat flux measurements are needed to gain a better knowledge of the thermal performance of buildings and to evaluate the heat exchange among various parts of a building envelope. Heat flux meters (HFMs) are commonly used both in laboratory applications and in situ for measuring one-dimensional heat fluxes and, thus, estimating the thermal transmittance of material samples and existing buildings components. Building applications often requires heat flux measurements below 100 W · m^?2. However, a standard reference system generating such a low heat flux is available only in a few national metrology institutes (NMIs). In this work, a numerical study aimed at designing an HFM calibration apparatus operating in the heat flux range from 5 W·m^?2 to 100 W · m^?2 is presented. Predictions about the metrological performance of such a calibration system were estimated by numerical modeling exploiting a commercial FEM code (COMSOL^®). On the basis of the modeling results, an engineered design of such an apparatus was developed and discussed in detail. The system was designed for two different purposes: (i) for measuring the thermal conductivity of insulators and (ii) for calibrating an HFM with an absolute method (i.e., by measuring the applied power from the heater and its active cross section) or by a relative method (i.e., by measuring the temperature drop across a reference material of known thickness and thermal conductivity). The numerical investigations show that in order to minimize the uncertainty of the generated heat flux, a fine temperature control on the thermal guard is needed. The predicted standard uncertainty is within 2% at 10W·m^?2 and within 0.5% at 100 W · m^?2.     

瞬态热带恒功率法测量导热率

基于传统热桥法基本原理,提出了新的非对称结构模型--瞬态热带恒功率法用于测量材料的导热率。非对称结构模型将热源热带与温度传感热带电路彼此独立,消除了热带电阻自热以及环境温度变化带来的影响。通过短时间内快速测量恒流电路中两热带的电压差随时间的变化关系准确测量材料的导热率。依据此模型设计了热带加热片,建立了基于LabVIEW测试软件的实验装置自动测量平台,实验测量结果与参考材料导热率具有良好的一致性,相对偏差在3％左右,验证了该理论模型的有效性。     

Estimation of thermal properties of composite materials without instrumentation inside the samples

Recent contributions of parameter estimation in the measurement of thermal properties are of great importance. In comparison with other techniques such as steady state (hot guarded plate, etc.) or transient (line source method, flash method, etc.), the use of parameter estimation provides more information and, in most cases, produces faster results. With this technique the thermal conductivity and the volumetric specific heat are estimated simultaneously and as a function of time, temperature, or position. This method requires experimental data, such as transient temperature and heat flux measurements. Previously, the temperature measurements came from thermocouples embedded in the sample. These thermocouples are introduced in the sample either by drilling holes or by molding the material around a series of thermocouples. Both operations are time-consuming and costly and are needed for each sample. In this study, temperature measurements are made only on the two sides of the samples with thin resistance thermometers. Since the sensors are not inside the material, the effect of the thermal contact conductance between sensor and sample was first investigated. The value of this thermal contact conductance was estimated by using samples of high-conductivity material. Using these values, the estimated thermal properties obtained with surface temperature measurements are compared with values provided by other methods for several low-thermal conductivity materials; agreement has been very good.     

Experimental determination of the thermal conductivity of thin films

Two techniques have been developed to determine experimentally the thermal conductivity of thin solid films of thickness 500 Å or more at low and high temperatures. The first technique is a steady state and is suitable for measurements above room temperature. The method enables the thermal conductivity of eight film specimens to be measured simultaneously. The second technique is a transient one (an adaptation of Ioffe's method for bulk materials) and is suitable for measurements in the temperature range 100–260 K. The two techniques have been used to make measurements of thin films of copper and various crystalline and amorphous semiconductors. The values of the thermal conductivity for thick copper films by both techniques agree quite well with the bulk values.