Separator grafted with siloxane by electron beam irradiation for lithium secondary batteries

Polyethylene (PE) separator grafted with 2,4,6,8-tetramethyl-2,4,6,8-tetravinylcyclotetrasiloxane (siloxane) was newly prepared by electron beam irradiation. The degree of grafting and morphology of the grafted separators were characterized by FT-IR and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The polymer electrolytes based on the grafted separators were prepared by immersing the separators in the electrolyte containing 1 M LiPF₆ in EC/DMC (1:1 by volume). The ionic conductivity of the grafted separators was changed with the degree of grafting and showed the highest value of 7 × 10⁻⁴ S cm⁻¹ at the degree of grafting of 6%. The electrochemical stability limit of the grafted separator with the degree of grafting of 6% was increased to 5.2 V. The Li ion cell using the grafted separator also showed an improved performance, suggesting that the grafted separator is a good candidate for the separator of lithium batteries at high voltage operation.     

Study on performance of composite polymer films doped with modified molecular sieve for lithium-ion batteries

To improve the tensile strength and ionic conductivity of composite polymer films for lithium-ion batteries, molecular sieves of MCM-41 modified with sulfated zirconia (SO₄²⁻/ZrO₂, SZ), denoted as MCM-41/SZ, were doped into a poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVdF) matrix to fabricate MCM-41/SZ composite polymer films, denoted as MCM-41/SZ films. Examination by transmission electron microscope (TEM) shows that modified molecular sieves have lower aggregation and a more porous structure. Tensile strength tests were carried out to investigate the mechanical performance of MCM-41/SZ films, and then the electrochemical performance of batteries with MCM-41/SZ films as separators was tested. The results show that the tensile strength (σ_t) of MCM-41/SZ film was up to 7.8 MPa; the ionic conductivity of MCM-41/SZ film was close to 10⁻³ S cm⁻¹ at room temperature; and the coulombic efficiency of the assembled lithium-ion battery was 92% at the first cycle and reached as high as 99.99% after the 20th cycle. Meanwhile, the charge-discharge voltage plateau of the lithium-ion battery presented a stable state. Therefore, MCM-41/SZ films are a good choice as separators for lithium-ion batteries due to their high tensile strength and ionic conductivity.     

Multi-functional Al2O3-coated separators for high-performance lithium-ion batteries: Critical effects of particle shape

The technology of coating polyolefin-type separators with ceramics is gradually developing as an effective method to improve the safety of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). However, the powder properties of ceramics can adversely affect the surface structure and ionic conductivity of separators; therefore, a new approach is required regarding the powder properties that affect the performance of the separator. Herein, the effect of the Al₂O₃ particle shape on the physical properties of Al₂O₃-coated separators and the performance of LIBs is investigated. In the separator coated with angular-shaped Al₂O₃ particles (Al₂O₃-A), the pores in the coating layer are uniformly distributed, improving physical properties such as porosity and wettability. The thermal shrinkage of separator is <10% when exposed to 150 °C for 1 h, considerably smaller than that of the commercial polyethylene separator (approximately 83%) under the same conditions. Moreover, the Al₂O₃-A-coated separator shows the highest ionic conductivity (0.531 mS cm⁻¹), and the LiNi_0.8Mn_0.1Co_0.1O₂/Al₂O₃-A-coated separator/Li battery displays improved stability than using the polyethylene separator under a current density of 5C. This proposes approach to improve the separator's performance through the shape control of ceramic particles paves the way for separators to contribute to the high-temperature safety and long cycle life of batteries.     

Separators for Li-Ion and Li-Metal Battery Including Ionic Liquid Based Electrolytes Based on the TFSI? and FSI? Anions

The characterization of separators for Li-ion or Li-metal batteries incorporating hydrophobic ionic liquid electrolytes is reported herein. Ionic liquids made of N-butyl-N-methylpyrrolidinium (PYR₁₄⁺) or N-methoxyethyl-N-methylpyrrolidinium (PYR_12O1⁺), paired with bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (TFSI⁻) or bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide (FSI⁻) anions, were tested in combination with separators having different chemistries and morphologies in terms of wetting behavior, Gurley and McMullin number, as well as Li/(Separator + Electrolyte) interfacial properties. It is shown that non-functionalized microporous polyolefin separators are poorly wetted by FSI⁻-based electrolytes (contrary to TFSI⁻-based electrolytes), while the ceramic coated separator Separion^® allows good wetting with all electrolytes. Furthermore, by comparing the lithium solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) resistance evolution at open circuit and during cycling, depending on separator morphologies and chemistries, it is possible to propose a scale for SEI forming properties in the order: PYR_12O1FSI > PYR₁₄FSI > PYR₁₄TFSI > PYR_12O1TFSI. Finally, the impact the separator morphology is evidenced by the SEI resistance evolution and by comparing Li electrodes cycled using separators with two different morphologies.     

Hierarchical self-assembly of tannic acid/diethylenetriamine on polypropylene for high-performance separator

In lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), separator is used to provide a barrier between the anode and cathode and provide freedom for the transport of lithium-ions, which serves a key function in inhibiting internal short circuit and improving the battery safety. The limited wettability of commercial polyolefin separators in electrolytes restricts its utilization in extreme environmental conditions. In our work, we choose polypropylene (PP) as the precursor and can address the issue of poor wettability through suitable modification methods. Tannic acid (TA) and diethylenetriamine (DETA) were utilized to coat PP separator via hierarchical self-assembly approach, and the coating is further stabilized by taking advantage of the specific oxidizing properties of sodium periodate. This method scarcely increases the separator thickness or sacrifices the microporous structure of the original separator. The improved separator not only exhibits outstanding wetting capability and relatively high ion conductivity (1.24 mS cm⁻¹), but also has the highest lithium-ion migration number of 0.74. This indicates that when the modified separator is applied to LIBs, its electrochemical performance is significantly enhanced. The enhancement in electrochemical performance of LIBs is attributed to the strong absorption and retention ability of the coating on the separator. The reversible capacity of Li/PP-TD2 separator/LiFePO₄ battery is 144.3 mAh g⁻¹ at 2C, which is higher than that of PP separator (117.1 mAh g⁻¹) under the same current density. Even after 200 cycles, the PP-TD2 separator with two-layer assembly modification still maintains a higher coulombic efficiency of 97.55% and a discharge capacity of 96.6%. This hierarchical self-assembly modification of PP provides an effective approach for fabricating high-performance separator.     

PE-g-MMA polymer electrolyte membrane for lithium polymer battery

PE-g-MMA membranes with different degrees of grafting (DG) were prepared by electron beam radiation-induced graft copolymerization of methylmethacrylate (MMA) monomer onto polyethylene (PE) separator. The grafted membranes (GMs) were characterized using SEM, FTIR. The new polymer electrolytes based on GMs were prepared through immersion in a solution of LiPF₆-EC/DMC (1:1 by volume). It was found that the GMs with different DG exhibited the different uptake and retention ability of liquid electrolyte. Moreover, the ion conductivities of activated polymer electrolytes (APEs) were also found to vary with the different DG and reached a magnitude of 10⁻³ S cm⁻¹ at the DG of 42%. Compared with those containing PE separators, the LiCoO₂-MCMB coin cells containing GMs demonstrated better cycle life and excellent rate performance.     

All solid electric double layer capacitors based on Nafion ionomer

The aim of the present work is to demonstrate that an efficient all solid electric double layer capacitor (EDLC) may be realised with electrolyte membrane and carbon based electrodes prepared by using a Nafion ionomer solution. Polymer membrane was prepared by a casting method. Electrodes were prepared with two overlapped layers formed of a carbon-Nafion layer and a carbon paper substrate. Three different electrolyte separators in capacitor configuration have been tested and compared: (1) a commercial Nafion 115 membrane (N115), (2) a membrane prepared by casting the Nafion 1100 solution (NRG50) and (3) a porous glass fibre matrix impregnated with a 1 M H₂SO₄ solution (FVH2SO4). The membrane and electrodes assemblies (MEA) had thickness of 0.6-0.8 mm and geometric area of 4 cm². The EDLCs characteristics have been studied by conductivity, cyclic voltammetry and DC charge-discharge methods. Proton conductivities of 5.7×10⁻² and 3.1×10⁻² S cm⁻¹ have been measured at room temperature for the N115 and the NRG50, respectively. Specific capacity of 13.2 F g⁻¹ has been obtained by capacitor utilising the cast Nafion membrane. This value is 70% of specific capacity obtained from the capacitor using sulphuric acid and about 140% of that using Nafion 115.     

Biodegradable porous polylactic acid film as a separator for supercapacitors

A porous polylactic acid (PLA) film was investigated as a separator for supercapacitors (SCs) and compared with commercial separators, for example, NKK-MPF30AC and Celgard 2400. The porous PLA film was fabricated via a facile phase inversion method, and the cross-sectional scanning electron microscope images of the PLA separator film exhibited highly porous interconnected morphology for ion diffusion. The surface modification of separators was performed by radio frequency (RF) air plasma to improve wettability. The plasma modification enhanced the water uptake and swelling properties of the separators and decreased the water contact angles of PLA and Celgard 2400 films. The mechanical and dielectric properties of separators were also studied. The ionic conductivities of RF-PLA in 1 M H₂SO₄ and 1 M Na₂SO₄ were found to be 1.1 × 10⁻¹ S/cm and 0.6 × 10⁻² S/cm at room temperature, respectively. The electrochemical impedance spectroscopy of the RF-PLA SCs showed the lowest solution resistance and internal resistance.     

A comparative study on polypropylene separators coated with different inorganic materials for lithium-ion batteries

Coating commercial porous polyolefin separators with inorganic materials can improve the thermal stability of the polyolefin separators and hence improve the safety of lithium-ion batteries. Several different inorganic materials have been studied for the coating. However, there lacks a study on how different inorganic materials affect the properties of separators, in terms of thermal stability and cell performance. Herein, we present such a study on coating a commercial polypropylene separator with four inorganic materials, i.e., Al₂O₃, SiO₂, ZrO₂ and zeolite. All inorganic coatings have improved thermal stability of the separators although with differences. The coating layers add 28%–45% of electrical resistance compared with the pure polypropylene separator, but all the cells prepared with the coated polypropylene separators have the same electrical chemical performance as the uncoated separator in terms of rate capability and capacities at different temperatures.

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Sulfophenylated Poly (Ether Ether Ketone Ketone) Nanofiber Composite Separator with Excellent Electrochemical Performance and Dimensional Thermal Stability for Lithium-Ion Battery via Electrospinning

In this investigation, the sulfophenylated poly (ether ether ketone ketone) (SPEEKK) separators for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are prepared via electrospinning. The electrospun sulfophenylated poly (ether ether ketone ketone) membranes (es-SP) are then modified with lithium bis(trifuoro-methanesulfonyl)imide (LiTFSI) by immersing in the LiTFSI/ethanol solution to obtain the modified es-SP composite separators (es-SP-Li). SPEEKK displays excellent dimensional thermal stability, and thus the thermal shrinkage of es-SP-Li-20 (20% of LiTFSI in ethanol) composite separators is only 2% after 0.5 h at 200 °C. The strong polarity of sulfonic acid groups on SPEEKK and LiTFSI enhances the electrolyte wettability and uptake, and thus afford more Li source, so as to promote the conductivity of lithium ions in the composite separators, which in turn exhibit positive impacts on the rate and cycling stability performance of LIBs. The Li//LiFePO₄ cells assembled with es-SP-Li-20 separator demonstrate excellent electrochemical stability over 170 cycles at 0.2 C with a reversible discharge capacity of 153 mAh g⁻¹, and a promising rate capacity at 2 C. In short, the as-prepared es-SP-Li composite separators with excellent comprehensive property emerge as a promising application in LIBs.     

Novel preparation of lithium-ion battery wet-processed separator based on the synergistic effect of porous skeleton nano-Al2O3 in situ blending and synchro-draw

Routine lithium-ion battery separators with uneven micropores and poor electrolyte affinity raise ion transport barriers and become the battery-performance-limiting factors. A wet-processed separator with homogeneous porous structure and porous skeleton nano-Al₂O₃ in situ blending is readily prepared by thermally induced phase separation of paraffin, nano-Al₂O₃ and ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) in this work. SEM, ImageJ statistical analysis, porosity and Gurley calculation show that a separator that has undergone asynchronous drawing exhibits ample sturdy fibrils, heterogeneous pore size dispersion, poor permeability and strong anisotropy. However, UHMWPE deforms much more uniformly under a synchro-draw, which distinctly lessens coarse fibrils, centralizes porous construction after stretching and brings better isotropy for the separator. Additionally, nano-Al₂O₃ scattered in the cast film further weakens the heterogeneity of micropores stemming from the uneven thermally induced phase separation. Wettability tests and thermal diagnoses also show that nano-Al₂O₃ on the porous skeleton strengthens the thermal stability and electrolyte affinity of the separator. Consequently, batteries containing nano-Al₂O₃ composite separators show much higher electrochemical stability, ionic conductivity and Li⁺ transport number because of the synergistic effect of the even microvoids and nano-Al₂O₃ on the porous skeleton, which expedites Li⁺ transport and endows superior lithium-ion battery performance. © 2022 Society of Industrial Chemistry.     

Resin-silica composite nanoparticle grafted polyethylene membranes for lithium ion batteries

To avoid the peeling-off of ceramic nanoparticles (NPs) from polyolefin membranes usually occurred in commercially available ceramic NPs coated polyolefin separators for lithium batteries, we propose a simple one-pot in-situ reaction method to modify commercial polyethylene (PE) separators by surface grafting 3-Aminophenol/formaldehyde (AF)/silica (SiO₂) composite NPs. The AF/SiO₂ composite NPs form self-supporting connected pores on the modified layer of the separator surface, which ensures the transportation of Li⁺. Moreover, the PE@AF/SiO₂ separators has higher electrolyte wettability and compatibility than neat PE separators attributed to the plentiful polar functional groups in the AF/SiO₂ layer and AF/SiO₂ composite NPs, resulting in higher lithium ion transference number (= 0.62) and ionic conductivity (σ = 0.722 mS cm⁻¹). More importantly, the discharge capacity, capacity retention rate and coulombic efficiency (136.2 mA h g⁻¹, 87.9% and 99%, respectively) after 200 cycles of Li|NMC half batteries with PE@AF/SiO₂ separators, are all more excellent than that with the pure PE separator (125 mA h g⁻¹, 83.1% and 85%, respectively). Our results show that the PE@AF/SiO₂ separators obtained by this modification method have higher electrochemical stability in the lithium battery system.     

A new rechargeable lithium-ion battery with a xLi2MnO3·(1 − x) LiMn0.4Ni0.4Co0.2O2 cathode and a hard carbon anode

We reported a new type of rechargeable lithium-ion battery consisting of a structurally integrated 0.4Li₂MnO₃·0.6LiMnNi_0.4Co_0.2O₂ cathode and a hard carbon anode. The drawback of the high irreversible capacity loss of both electrodes, occurring at the first charge/discharge process, can be counterbalanced each other. The battery shows good reversibility with a sloping voltage from 1.5 V to 4.5 V and delivers a capacity of 105 mA h g⁻¹ and a specific energy of 315 W h kg⁻¹ based on the total weight of the both active electrode materials.     

A new polymer electrolyte poly(acrylonitrile)-dimethylsulphoxide-salt for electrochemical capacitors

The PAN-DMSO-Et₄NBF₄ and PAN-DMSO-Et₄NTf (Tf is triflate ion) electrolytes were prepared as white, turbid foils with a thickness in the range of 0.1-0.5 mm, using the casting technique. Room temperature conductance of the electrolytes, detected from ac impedance experiments, was at the level of 8 and 14 mS cm⁻¹ for Et₄NBF₄ and Et₄NTf salts, respectively. The electrochemical stability window of approximately 2.6-2.8 V was estimated using a glassy carbon electrode. Temperature dependence of the conductivity is of the Arrhenius-type for both electrolytes, with an activation energy of approximately 34 kJ mol⁻¹. The double-layer capacitors built with these electrolytes, serving both as separators and activated carbon powder (ACP) binders, showed a specific capacity of 50 F g⁻¹ of carbon material. Capacitors were assembled by sandwiching the PAN-DMSO-salt electrolyte between two PAN-salt-DMSO-ACP-AB electrodes and pressing across the system; the resulting devices had a coin-like shape with 8 mm diameter and thickness between 2.0 and 2.5 mm.     

Properties of Li-graphite and LiFePO4 electrodes in LiPF6–sulfolane electrolyte

Sulfolane (also referred to as tetramethylene sulfone, TMS) containing LiPF₆ and vinylene carbonate (VC) was tested as a non-flammable electrolyte for a graphite |LiFePO₄ lithium-ion battery. Charging/discharging capacity of the LiFePO₄ electrode was ca. 150 mAh g⁻¹ (VC content 5 wt%). The capacity of the graphite electrode after 10 cycles establishes at the level of ca. 350 mAh g⁻¹ (C/10 rate). In the case of the full graphite |1 M LiPF₆ + TMS + VC 10 wt% |LiFePO₄ cell, both charging and discharging capacity (referred to cathode mass) stabilized at a value of ca. 120 mAh g⁻¹. Exchange current density for Li⁺ reduction on metallic lithium, estimated from electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) experiments, was j_o(Li/Li⁺) = 8.15 × 10⁻⁴ A cm⁻². Moreover, EIS suggests formation of the solid electrolyte interface (SEI) on lithium, lithiated graphite and LiFePO₄ electrodes, protecting them from further corrosion in contact with the liquid electrolyte. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images of pristine electrodes and those taken after electrochemical cycling showed changes which may be interpreted as a result of SEI formation. No graphite exfoliation was observed. The main decomposition peak of the LiPF₆ + TMS + VC electrolyte (TG/DTA experiment) was present at ca. 275 °C. The LiFePO₄(solid) + 1 M LiPF₆ + TMS + 10 wt% VC system shows a flash point of ca. 150 °C. This was much higher in comparison to that characteristic of a classical LiFePO₄ (solid) + 1 M LiPF₆ + 50 wt% EC + 50 wt% DMC system (T_f ≈ 37 °C).     

Electrodeposited PbO2 thin film as positive electrode in PbO2/AC hybrid capacitor

Lead dioxide (PbO₂) thin films were prepared on Ti/SnO₂ substrates by means of electrodeposition method. Galvanostatic technique was applied in PbO₂ film formation process, and the effect of deposition current on morphology and crystalline form of the PbO₂ thin films was studied by means of scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD). The energy storage capacity of the prepared PbO₂ electrode was investigated by means of cyclic voltammetry (CV) and charge/discharge cycles, and a rough surface structure PbO₂ film was selected as positive electrode in the construction of PbO₂/AC hybrid capacitor in a 1.28 g cm⁻³ H₂SO₄ solution. The electrochemical performance was determined by charge/discharge tests and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). The results showed that the PbO₂/AC hybrid capacitor exhibited high capacitance, good cycling stability and long cycle life. In the voltage range of 1.8-0.8 V during discharge process, considering the weight of all components of the hybrid capacitor, including the two electrodes, current collectors, H₂SO₄ electrolyte and separator, the specific energy and power of the device were 11.7 Wh kg⁻¹ and 22 W kg⁻¹ at 0.75 mA cm⁻², and 7.8 Wh kg⁻¹ and 258 W kg⁻¹ at 10 mA cm⁻² discharge currents, respectively. The capacity retains 83% of its initial value after 3000 deep cycles at the 4 C rate of charge/discharge.     

Investigation of electrochemical behavior of Mn–Co doped oxide electrodes for electrochemical capacitors

The electrochemical properties of nanocrystalline Co-doped Mn oxide electrodes were investigated to determine the relationship between physicochemical feature evolution and the corresponding electrochemical behavior of synthesized electrodes. Co-doped Mn oxide electrodes with a rod-like morphology and antifluorite-type structure were synthesized by anodic electrodeposition on Au coated Si substrates from a dilute solution of 0.01 M Mn acetate (Mn(CH₃COO)₂) and 0.001 M Co sulphate (CoSO₄).Electrochemical characterization of synthesized electrodes, with and without a conducting polymer (PEDOT) coating, was performed with electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and cyclic voltammetry (CV) at different scan rates. In addition, structural characterization of as-deposited and cycled electrodes was conducted using SEM, TEM and XPS.Capacitance values for all deposits increased with increasing scan rate to 100 mV s⁻¹, and then decreased after 100 mV s⁻¹. The Mn–Co oxide/PEDOT electrodes showed improved specific capacity and electrochemical cyclability relative to uncoated Mn–Co oxides. Mn–Co oxide/PEDOT electrodes with rod-like structures had high capacitances (up to 310 F g⁻¹) at a scan rate of 100 mV s⁻¹ and maintained their capacitance after 500 cycles in 0.5 M Na₂SO₄ (91% retention). Capacitance reduction for the deposits was mainly due to the loss of Mn ions by dissolution in the electrolyte solution.     

Electron beam irradiation modified electrospun polyvinylidene fluoride/polyacrylonitrile fibrous separators for safe lithium-ion batteries

This work aims to obtain more hydrophilic and thermal stable electrospun fibrous membranes for lithium-ion battery separators. For this purpose, the polyvinylidene fluoride/polyacrylonitrile (PVDF/PAN) separators are fabricated via electrospinning and modified by an electron beam with different doses. These preparation processes are simple, fast, and environmentally friendly. As the same time, the physical and electrochemical properties of these separators are investigated in detail. The results indicated that all the irradiated PVDF/PAN (the mass ratio of PVDF and PAN is 1:1) separators can maintain a complete structure till 170°C due to their cross-linking structure. Besides, the 150-kGy-irradiated PVDF/PAN separator exhibits high porosity (82%), excellent electrolyte absorption (497%), and high ionic conductivity (3.19 mS cm⁻¹). As a consequence, the cells with 150-kGy-irradiated PVDF/PAN separators show better the C-rate performance and cycling stability than those of the cells with polypropylene separators and nonirradiated PVDF/PAN separators.     

Preparation of 4A zeolite coated polypropylene membrane for lithium-ion batteries separator

This study aims to improve wettability and thermal resistance of lithium-ion batteries separators. For this purpose, a commercial polypropylene (PP) separator was coated by 4A zeolite using poly(vinylidene fluoride) as binder and effects of the separators' zeolite content was investigated. All the coated separators showed lower contact angles, higher electrolyte uptakes, and less thermal shrinkages compared to the neat commercial separator. The coated PPA8 separator (zeolite to binder ratio of 8) showed the lowest wettability (contact angle of 0°) and electrolyte uptake (270%) due to its surface porosity resulting from the zeolite particles interstitial cavities as well as their internal cavities. Also, the PPA8 separator ion conductivity was found as 2.25 mS cm⁻¹ and C-rate and cycling performance of its assembled battery were higher compared to those of the commercial PP separator assembled battery. © 2019 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2019 , 136, 47841.     

Structure,stability, and ionic conductivity of perovskite Li2x-ySr1-x-yLayTiO3 solid electrolytes

Solid electrolytes with high lithium-ion conductivity and superior stability are key components in the development of all-solid-state lithium-ion batteries. In this study, novel quaternary solid electrolytes Li_2x-ySr_1-x-yLa_yTiO₃ (x = 3y/4, y = 1/7, 2/7, 3/7, 1/2, 15/28, and 4/7) were synthesized by conventional solid-state reaction approach. X-ray diffraction analysis revealed that with the increase in La³⁺ content, Li_2x−ySr_1−x−yLa_yTiO₃ structure changes from cubic to tetragonal perovskite-type structure. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy revealed that with the increase in y-value, enhanced conductivity was initial observed, followed by a decrease. Li_15/56Sr_1/16La_15/28TiO₃ electrolyte exhibited optimal total Li-ion conductivity of 4.84 × 10⁻⁴ S cm⁻¹, electronic conductivity of 6.84 × 10⁻¹⁰ S cm⁻¹, and activation energy of 0.29 eV. On the other hand, cyclic voltammetry revealed unstable Li_1/8Sr_1/8La_1/2TiO₃, Li_15/56Sr_1/16La_15/28TiO₃, and Li_2/7La_4/7TiO₃ specimens at voltages of less than ~2 V, indicative of their incompatibility with lithium metal or Li₄Ti₅O₁₂ in all-solid-state batteries. Charge-discharge tests confirmed the utility of electrolytes as solid separators with good performance in semi-solid-state batteries. Overall, these results are beneficial for future research on solid electrolytes and their applications in all-solid-state lithium-ion batteries.