Chloride salt mixtures affect Gordal cv. green Spanish-style table olive fermentation

This work studies the effects of different sodium (in the range of 4-10%), potassium (0-4%) and calcium (0-6%) chloride salt mixtures on the fermentation profile of Gordal olives processed according to the Spanish style. For this purpose, response surface methodology based on a simplex centroid mixture design with constrain (sum of salt percentages = 10%) was used. All treatments reached appropriate titratable acidity levels, but this parameter could not be related to the initial chloride salt concentration. The presence of CaCl₂ led to lower initial and after-fermentation pHs, delayed sugar diffusion into the brine, its maximum concentration and titratable acidity formation. CaCl₂ also delayed Enterobacteriaceae and yeast sprang, decreasing their overall growth. This chloride salt also showed a tendency to reduce overall lactic acid bacteria growth. KCl had a similar behaviour to NaCl but, in general, increased overall microbial growth. Thus, a partial substitution of NaCl in Spanish-style green olives with KCl and CaCl₂ does not substantially modify the fermentation profile but does produce some changes, which, when properly managed, could help to improve product processing.     

Fermentation profiles of Manzanilla-Aloreña cracked green table olives in different chloride salt mixtures

NaCl plays an important role in table olive processing affecting the flavour and microbiological stability of the final product. However, consumers demand foods low in sodium, which makes necessary to decrease levels of this mineral in fruits. In this work, the effects of diverse mixtures of NaCl, CaCl₂ and KCl on the fermentation profiles of cracked directly brined Manzanilla-Aloreña olives, were studied by means of response surface methodology based in a simplex lattice mixture design with constrains. All salt combinations led to lactic acid processes. The growth of Enterobacteriaceae populations was always limited and partially inhibited by the presence of CaCl₂. Only time to reach half maximum populations and decline rates of yeasts, which were higher as concentrations of NaCl or KCl increased, were affected, and correspondingly modelled, as a function of salt mixtures. However, lactic acid bacteria growth parameters could not be related to initial environmental conditions. They had a longer lag phase, slower growth and higher population levels than yeasts. Overall, the presence of CaCl₂ led to a slower Enterobacteriaceae and lactic acid bacteria growth than the traditional NaCl brine but to higher yeast activity. The presence of CaCl₂ in the fermentation brines also led to higher water activity, lower pH and combined acidity as well as a faster acidification while NaCl and KCl had fairly similar behaviours. Apparently, NaCl may be substituted in diverse proportions with KCl or CaCl₂ without substantially disturbing water activity or the usual fermentation profiles while producing olives with lower salt content.     

Effect of chloride salt mixtures on selected attributes and mineral content of fermented cracked Aloreña olives

Sodium chloride is essential in table olive fermentation, storage and packing to guarantee safety and flavor. However, consumers are progressively concerned about sodium intake. In this work, the effect of selected attributes and mineral contents of fermented cracked Aloreña olives as a function of different chloride salt mixtures were studied, using a simplex lattice design with constrains (NaCl + CaCl₂ + KCl = 0.110 kg/l). The best fruit colour was observed at half proportions of KCl and NaCl or CaCl₂; optimum firmness was around the centre of the triangular coordinates but close to the line connecting CaCl₂ and NaCl vertexes; and the best overall quality was obtained in the 0.037 kg/l NaCl and 0.073 kg/l KCl mixture. The concentrations in the fermented olive flesh of the involved elements depended on their initial levels and on the CaCl₂ × NaCl and CaCl₂ × KCl interactions. Results demonstrate that sodium chloride can be replaced in table olives, at least partially, with potassium or calcium chlorides.     

Improvement of the storage process for cracked table olives

The aim of this work was to improve the storage method for cracked table olives. First, a study was carried out of the washing phase in 5% (wt/vol) NaCl brine with ascorbic acid and sodium metabisulphite added to it. Its use removed half the proportion of the initial sugar content in the flesh and markedly decreased the content of polyphenols in the fruits, confirming the effectiveness of this treatment. Washing with 5% NaCl and sodium metabisulphite was selected and applied in storage phase which follows. Storage of the washed cracked olives produced an additional decrease in sugars and polyphenols in the flesh, although the product still retained a fairly high concentration of residual sugars at the end of the storage period. The growth of lactic acid bacteria in this phase was prevented by the high NaCl level (10–13% at the equilibrium) but yeast growth, followed by a decline phase, was found in all storage systems studied. The use of a CO₂ atmosphere led to a partial inactivation of yeasts for about 300 h and showed a protective effect on polyphenols. Application of ozone had a favourable effect on initial solubilisation of sugars and polyphenols but caused a negative effect on fresh appearance, colour retention and polyphenol degradation. CaCl₂ + MgCl₂ treatment led to a significantly faster decline phase of yeasts. A tentative improved process for cracked olive storage may consist of a previous washing of olives for 24 h with a 5% NaCl solution (optionally added with 0.1% sodium metabisulphite), and a subsequent brining in a 15% NaCl solution with 0.25% CaCl₂ + 0.20% MgCl₂ or in a 15% NaCl brine under CO₂ atmosphere.     

Is There a Potential Consumer Market for Low‐Sodium Fermented Sausages?

The NaCl levels in dry fermented sausages were reduced by 50% or were substituted with KCl, CaCl₂, or a blend of KCl and CaCl₂ (1:1). The quality, safety, and the potential consumer market of dry fermented sausages were assessed. Neither 50% reduction of the NaCl content nor the substitution of 50% of the NaCl with KCl influenced the fermentation and maturation process. However, when CaCl₂ was used as the substitute salt (50%), there was a significant decrease in pH, an increase in the water activity, and a decrease in lactic acid and micrococcus bacterial counts. Overall, the sensory acceptance decreased in dry fermented sausages with reduced sodium content. However, cluster analysis and internal preference mapping revealed potential for commercialization of samples with 50% of the NaCl content substituted with KCl or with a mixture of KCl and CaCl₂ (1:1).     

Effect of calcium chloride on mechanical properties and microbiological characteristics of cv. Conservolea naturally black olives fermented at different sodium chloride levels

The effect of calcium chloride (CaCl₂)(5 gL^?1) and sodium chloride (NaCl) concentration (40, 60 and 8 gL^?1) on the microbiological and mechanical properties of naturally black olives of cv. Conservolea in brines was studied. In 40 and 60 g L^?1 brines the growth of lactic acid bacteria was favoured over that of yeasts, resulting in rather complete lactic acid fermentation as indicated by high free acidity (9.8–11.5 g lactic acid L^?1) and low pH (3.7–3.8). At 80 g L^?1 brine, yeasts were the dominant members of the microflora, rendering a product with lower acidity (8 g lactic acid L^?1) and higher pH (4.3–4.5). In the presence of CaCl₂ there was a consistent increase in the depth of the peripheral region in which cell wall breakage occurred. When cells separated, perforated walls were observed at sites associated with plasmodesmata. The flesh was strongest and stiffest when CaCl₂ was added to olives treated with 40 g L^?1 brine, consistent with cell wall breakage being the predominant mode of failure. The only observed effect on the mechanical properties of the skin was a stiffening at 60 g L^?1 brine on addition of CaCl₂. Copyright © 2007 Society of Chemical Industry     

Biochemical and sensory changes in dry-cured ham salted with partial replacements of NaCl by other chloride salts

The reduction of the content of sodium chloride in dry-cured ham was studied in to prevent the problems related to high sodium intake (i.e. the hypertension). One of the possibilities to reduce the sodium content is the partial replacement of sodium chloride by mixtures of potassium, magnesium and calcium chloride salts. The effect of two salting formulations (formulation II: 50% NaCl-50% KCl and formulation III: 55% NaCl, 25% KCl, 15 CaCl₂ and 5 MgCl₂) on the protease activity through the dry-curing process and on the sensory characteristics of the final product was evaluated and compared to those of control hams (formulation I, 100% NaCl). Sensory attributes were all affected in the hams containing CaCl₂ and MgCl₂ while hams containing 50% KCl and NaCl (formulation II) were better valued, except for the attribute taste probably due to the potassium contribution to bitter taste.     

Effect of sodium,potassium, calcium and magnesium chloride salts on porcine muscle proteases

This study is focused on the effect of sodium chloride alternative salts (KCl, MgCl₂ and CaCl₂) on porcine muscle proteases (cathepsins, dipeptidylpeptidases and aminopeptidases). In general, KCl exerted a very similar effect to NaCl for all the studied enzymes, while the effect of divalent salts (CaCl₂ and MgCl₂) was more pronounced. Cathepsins, dipeptidyl peptidase III, dipeptidyl peptidase IV and alanyl aminopeptidase activities were strongly inhibited by all the chloride salts especially by divalent ones. Dipeptidyl peptidase II and leucyl aminopeptidase were little affected and methionyl aminopeptidase was only inhibited by divalent salts. Dipeptidyl peptidase I was strongly activated by low concentrations of the chloride salts except NaCl. Arginyl aminopeptidase was activated by NaCl and KCl and low amounts of MgCl₂, while CaCl₂ showed a strong inhibitory effect. This is very important as these enzymes play important roles in dry-cured meats and their activity is, in general, regulated by sodium chloride. Thus, reductions in the sodium concentration with subsequent increases of other alternative cations may have relevant consequences on enzyme activity that should be taken into account when processing dry-cured meats.     

Calcium Chloride and Potassium Sorbate Reduce Sodium Chloride used during Natural Cucumber Fermentation and Storage

Cucumber fermentation characteristics and pickle quality were evaluated in brines containing equilibrium concentrations of 0-0.4% CaCl₂, 0-0.4% potassium sorbate and 0-10% NaCl. Changes in brine pH and acidity, cucumber texture and color, coliforms, lactic acid and total bacteria, yeasts and molds were followed over time. Results indicated that cucumber spoilage would eventually take place if NaCl or potassium sorbate were not present in the brine. The presence of CaCl₂ helped maintain cucumber firmness. A synergistic action between NaCl, CaCl₂ and potassium sorbate was seen, which allowed good quality pickles to be produced when moderate amounts of all three components were present in the brine (5% NaCl, 0.2% CaCl₂, 0.2% potassium sorbate).     

BALANCING MACROMINERAL COMPOSITION OF FRESH-PACK CUCUMBER PICKLES TO IMPROVE NUTRITIONAL QUALITY AND MAINTAIN FLAVOR1

The macromineral nutritional balance of fresh-pack dill cucumber pickles was improved without loss of flavor quality. A product with flavor acceptability equal to the original product was obtained if NaCl was reduced by 40%, from 2.0% to 1.2%. To replace the 0.8% reduction in NaCl 0.8% KCl was added. CaCl₂ and MgCl₂ were added proportionately to match the daily value (DV) of the added KCl. In addition to changes in mineral composition, low levels of both citric acid and hot pepper sauce were added to improve flavor acceptability. The flavor acceptability of dill pickles was rated higher (P <0.05) than the 2.0% NaCl control when the NaCl concentration was reduced 20% from 2.0 to 1.6%, and 0.4% KCl was added to replace the NaCl. Again, CaCl₂ and MgCl₂ were added at a level which gave the same proportion of the DVs of these minerals as 0.4% KCl. The highest flavor acceptability in the product with 20% less NaCl was obtained when only citric acid was added as a flavor modifier.     

Mineral content and sensory characteristics of Gordal green table olives fermented in chloride salt mixtures

This work studies the effects of the initial brine concentrations of NaCl, KCl, and CaCl(2) on the mineral content and gustatory and kinaesthetic sensations of fermented green table olives, using a simplex centroid mixture design augmented with interior points. The sodium in the flesh was linearly related to the mixture concentrations while potassium and calcium were linked by quadratic and special cubic models respectively. Acidity, saltiness, hardness, fibrousness, and crunchiness were expressed as linear funtions of the NaCl, KCl, and CaCl(2) initial brine contents but bitterness required quadratic equations. The models can be used to produce table olives with specific mineral contents in the flesh and to predict their corresponding sensory characteristics. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: The study provides the industry with models to estimate the Na, K, and Ca mineral contents in the flesh of fermented Gordal green table olives as well as their sensory characteristics as a function of the NaCl, KCl, and CaCl(2) initial compositions in the brining solution. Therefore, the paper provides tools which are able to support the production of commercial presentations which not only satisfy consumer demand for low Na, but are also K and Ca fortified table olive presentations with specific sensory profiles.     

Consumer Acceptability of Cucumber Pickles Produced by Fermentation in Calcium Chloride Brine for Reduced Environmental Impact

Fermentation of cucumbers in calcium chloride (CaCl₂) brine has been proposed as an alternative process to reduce the environmental impact of traditional, high salt fermentations. The objective of this research was to determine whether consumer acceptability of pickle products would be impacted by fermentation and storage of cucumbers in CaCl₂ brine. Cucumbers were fermented and stored with 0.1M CaCl₂ or 1M sodium chloride (NaCl) in open‐air, 3000 gal tanks at a commercial facility and processed into hamburger dill chips containing 0.38M NaCl. Cucumbers fermented in CaCl₂ required additional desalting to reduce CaCl₂ concentrations to that of current products. Consumers (n = 101) showed no significant preference for pickles from different fermentation treatments, whether stored for 2 mo (P = 0.75) or 8 mo (P = 0.68) prior to processing. In contrast, NaCl fermented pickles were preferred over CaCl₂ fermented pickles stored for 10 mo and desalted only once (P < 0.01). A series of preference tests indicated that the taste of CaCl₂ was not the factor affecting consumer preference, and the 50% detection threshold of CaCl₂ in dill pickle chips was found to be 61.8 ± 7.6 mM, indicating that processors could potentially use CaCl₂ fermentations with a single desalting step. Consumer liking of flavor (n = 73) was not influenced by fermentation in CaCl₂ or by 23 or 35 mM CaCl₂ in finished products (P > 0.05), but variability in texture decreased consumer liking (P < 0.05). Although promising, individual fermentation variability and texture quality of CaCl₂ fermented products should be further evaluated prior to broad implementation of this process.     

Efficacy of natamycin to control fungal growth in natural black olive fermentation

The effect of natamycin as a fungal control agent in natural black olive fermentation according to the traditional anaerobic system was studied. Black Conservolea olives were subjected to spontaneous fermentation in 8% (w/v) NaCl brine solution (control treatment) or brine supplemented with 0.01% (w/v) natamycin (active compound) for an overall period of 60 days. The changes in the microbial association (lactic acid bacteria, yeasts, Enterobacteriaceae), pH, titratable acidity, organic acids, and volatile compounds were monitored throughout fermentation. The initial microbiota consisted of lactic acid bacteria, yeasts, and Enterobacteriaceae. The addition of natamycin in the brine inhibited the growth of yeasts, without affecting the population dynamics of bacteria, resulting in a more vigorous fermentation with higher titratable acidity compared to spontaneous control process. Moreover, the presence of natamycin inhibited mould spoilage caused by the development of fungal mycelium on the surface of the brine during the traditional anaerobic fermentation system employed widely in Greece in natural black olive processing. Natamycin could be an important component of a processing system to control fungal growth in natural black olive fermentation and at the same time it has the potential to enhance the process by favouring the growth of the indigenous population of lactic acid bacteria against other competing microorganisms.     

Incorporation of Lactobacillus casei in Iranian ultrafiltered Feta cheese made by partial replacement of NaCl with KCl

Probiotic Iranian ultrafiltered Feta cheese was produced from ultrafiltration of milk with a volumetric concentration factor of 4.5:1. The heat-treated retentates were inoculated with 10(7) cfu of Lactobacillus casei LAFTI L26/mL. A mesophilic-thermophilic mixed culture of Lactococcus lactis ssp. lactis, Lactococcus lactis ssp. cremoris, and Streptococcus thermophilus was also used. Three percent (wt/wt) salt with different ratios of NaCl:KCl (100% NaCl, 50% NaCl:50% KCl, 75% NaCl:25% KCl, and 25% NaCl:75% KCl) were used in cheese formulation. The viability of L. casei was determined in treatments during the ripening period (90d at 5°C) within 15-d intervals. The pH, titratable acidity, and redox potential changes were monitored throughout the mentioned period. The mean pH drop rate, mean acidity increase rate, and mean redox potential increase rate were calculated at the end of the storage period. Also, total nitrogen, water-soluble nitrogen, lactic acid, and acetic acid concentrations, and syneresis and sensory characteristics of the product were measured during the mentioned period every 30d. The maximum viability of L. casei was observed within d 15 to 30 of the ripening period in the treatment containing the lowest amount of sodium. Addition of KCl enhanced syneresis. Cheeses with NaCl alone and with only 25% replacement by KCl have the highest sensory acceptability.     

Effect of partial substitution of sodium with potassium chloride in the fermenting brine on organoleptic characteristics and bioactive molecules occurrence in table olives debittered using Spanish and Castelvetrano methods

This research was aimed at testing whether the partial substitution of NaCl with KCl (50 or 75% relative substitution) in the fermenting brine of green table Nocellara del Belice olives debittered using two used method (Spanish and Castelvetrano) affected the presence of nutritionally relevant molecules (tocopherols, carotenoids, squalene, phenolic compounds) or the organoleptic characteristics of the table‐ready product. Results support the effectiveness of NaCl partial substitution by potassium chloride for olive processing, with the advantage of a significant decrease in the amount of sodium in the end product. The presence of the main bioactive molecules remained substantially unchanged, but KCl was associated with an increase in bitterness in both debittering methods. However, bitter properties (bitter, persistence and aftertaste) of olives obtained through the modification of Castelvetrano method still remained below those debittered with the classic Spanish method preserving, for such olives, the characteristic of ‘sweet olives’.     

Use of Consumer Acceptability as a Tool to Determine the Level of Sodium Reduction: A Case Study on Beef Soup Substituted With Potassium Chloride and Soy‐Sauce Odor

In this study, consumer acceptability was considered as a tool of reducing sodium rather than just using it as a final examination of the successfulness of the substitution. This study consisted of 4 experimental steps. First, by gradually reducing the concentrations of NaCl, consumer rejection threshold (CRT) of NaCl in beef soup was examined. Then, the amount of KCl that can increase preference was examined in 2 low sodium beef soups, with sodium concentrations slightly above or below the CRT. Relative saltiness of various KCl and NaCl/KCl mixtures were also measured. Finally, consumers evaluated acceptability and intensities of sensory characteristics for 9 beef soup samples that differed with respect to NaCl content and/or KCl content with/without addition of salty‐congruent odor (soy‐sauce odor). The results showed that in the “above CRT” system, consumer acceptability as well as sensory profile of low sodium beef soup substituted using KCl had similar profile to the control although saltiness was not fully recovered, whereas in the “below CRT” system, consumer acceptability was not recovered using KCl solely as a substitute. Potential of using salty‐congruent odor as a final touch to induce salty taste was observed; however, the results inferred the importance of having almost no artificialness in the odor and having harmony with the final product when using it as a strategy to substitute sodium. Overall, the results of the study implied the importance of considering consumer acceptability when approaching sodium reduction to better understand the potentials of the sodium substitutes and salty‐congruent odor.     

Generation of volatile compounds in Brazilian low-sodium dry fermented sausages containing blends of NaC1, KC1, and CaC12 during processing and storage

Brazilian dry fermented sausages with different salt contents were manufactured: control (2.5% NaCl), 50% salt reduced (1.25% NaCl, F1), 50% replaced by KCl (1.25% NaCl and 1.25% KCl, F2), 50% replaced by CaCl₂ (1.25% NaCl and 1.25% CaCl₂, F3), and 50% replaced by KCl and CaCl₂ (1.25% NaCl, 0.625% KCl and 0.625% CaCl₂, F4). Changes in the composition of volatile compounds were studied during processing (0, 7, and 19 days) and storage (30, 60, and 90 days). Neither reduction nor replacement of NaCl by KCI affected the volatile compounds produced during the manufacturing process, and both increased the volatile compounds from carbohydrate fermentation and amino acid degradation during storage. The addition of CaCl₂ improved the generation of hexanal and (E)-hept-2-enal and other volatiles from lipid oxidation during processing and storage. After 90 days of storage, the control sample showed an increase in the generation of volatile compounds from lipid oxidation.     

Effect of irrigation and lactic acid bacteria inoculants on the phenolic fraction,fermentation and sensory characteristics of olive (Olea europaea L. cv. Ascolana tenera) fruits

Plant productivity, phenolic profile and natural fermentation, with and without lactic acid bacteria inoculants, were investigated in olive fruit of Ascolana tenera growing under different irrigation regimes. A rainfed control and two treatments receiving a water depth equivalent to 33 and 66% of the estimated crop evapotranspiration (ETc) from the pit hardening stage and a treatment with 66% of ETc during the entire season (25 May‐4 October), were tested. Olive vigour increased with irrigation, which also induced a fresh yield enhancement, mainly due to the increase in fruit size. The differences between treatments were less evident for fruit number per tree and pulp/stone ratio. The phenolic content increased in water deficit‐stressed olives and differences were detected in the concentrations of individual phenolic compounds. Olive oil content and fatty acids composition appeared scarcely affected by irrigation. Values of pH, acidity, sugars, phenolic composition and microbial population were monitored during olive fermentation. Extracts of freshly harvested olive fruits exhibited significantly higher phenolic content than extracts of processed olives. The interaction of irrigation and fermentation appeared to have a significant effect on the chemical and sensory characteristics of the end product. The bitter taste of olive fruit was positively correlated with the level of total phenolics, but negatively correlated with the overall acceptability for direct consumption. The fermentation process was accelerated in the presence of lactic acid bacteria inoculants, indicating the potential use of these microorganisms as quality control markers in table olives during processing. Copyright © 2006 Society of Chemical Industry     

Occurrence of Listeria monocytogenes in green table olives

Microbiological safety of green table olives from different cultivars, prepared by both the Spanish-style and biological methods and fermented with starter cultures of lactic acid bacteria (Lactobacillus plantarum, Lactobacillus casei, and Lactobacillus pentosus), was investigated. The fermentation process was monitored by measuring pH values, titratable acidities, and growth of lactic acid bacteria over time. During fermentation, lactic acid bacteria and yeasts were major microbial populations. Microbiological safety was evaluated by analysis for Listeria monocytogenes with the use of an enrichment method during storage (from 55 days to 18 months). Results demonstrated that L. monocytogenes can survive and grow in green table olives. L. monocytogenes was found in one of the commercial (thermally treated) samples analyzed and in all samples older than 2 months, irrespective of olive cultivar, lactic acid bacteria starter used, pH and titratable acidity of brine samples, or treatment applied.