Craft beer: An overview

The purpose of the work was to provide an overview on craft beer. Details and issues concerning history and legal definition market, fiscal policy, innovation, safety, healthiness, consumer profile, and sustainability are supplied. The term “craft brewery” generally refers to a brewery able to produce low volumes of beer, often made with traditional ingredients—for emulating historic styles—but also with the addition of nontraditional ingredients as a distinctiveness sign of the master brewer. In many countries, the importance of the company size is related to the opportunity to take advantage of reduced excise rates for low production volumes. In several countries, another important requisite of a craft brewery is represented by its independence from other alcohol industry members. Even in the presence of a great heterogeneity of the size of craft breweries in the various countries, their number in the world is around 17,000. Craft beer is mainly consumed in restaurants and bars. Innovation of craft beer concerns aspects, such as ingredients, alcohol content, aging, and packaging, and the profile of the typical craft beer drinker is that of a young man, with a higher education and a medium-high income. Craft beers are often not filtered/not pasteurized and, for these reasons, they are beverages rich in health compounds but with a reduced shelf life. As in the case of larger breweries, the environmental impact of craft breweries is mainly represented by water consumption and production of liquid and solid wastes.     

Quantitative analysis of ochratoxin A in wine and beer using solid phase extraction and high performance liquid chromatography-fluorescence detection

A reliable and accurate method is described for the quantitative analysis of ochratoxin A (OTA) in wine and beer. The method involves the use of disposable non-polar polymeric and aminopropyl solid-phase extraction cartridges to isolate the mycotoxin from alcoholic beverages. Extracts were subsequently analysed using reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography-fluorescence detection with post column ammoniation to improve the limit of detection. The precision of the method determined at three levels in both wine and beer was less than 5% (RSD). Standard addition studies in both wine and beer showed that the recovery of OTA varied between 90 and 106% over a concentration range of 0.016-1.284 µg l^-1. The detection and quantification limits were shown to be better than 0.004 (S/N = 3) and 0.016 µg l^-1 (S/N = 10) for both beer and wine.     

关于葡萄酒中赭曲霉素A的研究进展

葡萄酒,作为一种绿色健康的产品,也存在潜在的食品安全问题,例如氨基甲酸乙酯EC、赭曲霉素A等。该文对葡萄酒中赭曲霉素A的含量标准,检测标准,产生菌,影响条件以及去除方法等方面进行综述,为国家制定葡萄酒中赭曲霉素A含量的标准提供理论参考,以期杜绝赭曲霉素A对葡萄酒安全的隐患。     

Occurrence of ochratoxin A in Australian wine

A survey of 601 samples of Australian wine for the presence of ochratoxin A (OA) was undertaken. The study sampled predominantly bottled wines, approximately equal numbers of red and white wines, wines made from a range of grape varieties and wines from all the major producing areas and some of the minor ones. A validated HPLC assay that did not utilise expensive immunoaffinity columns was developed for quantifying OA in wine, with limits of detection and quantification of 0.02 and 0.05 μg/L respectively. OA was detected in 90 (15.0%) of the 601 samples, but at uniformly low levels, with 85% of positive samples containing less than 0.2 μg/L OA. Only one sample exceeded 0.5 μg/L OA and no sample exceeded 1.0 μg/L OA. No region of Australia appeared more or less likely to produce wines containing OA.     

European research on ochratoxin A in grapes and wine

European wine production represents about 70% of world production and thus is an important export commodity. Ochratoxin A (OTA) was first detected as a wine contaminant in 1996 and the role of Aspergillus section Nigri and A. carbonarius in OTA production discovered in Europe in 1999. Subsequently Europe-wide surveys have shown that A. carbonarius is predominantly responsible for OTA contamination of grapes, wine and vine fruits. Analyses of wine samples throughout Europe have shown that there is a gradient in OTA concentration with a decrease from red, to rose and to white wines. The latitude of production is an important factor in determining risk from OTA contamination. Some geographic regions in Southern Europe are more prone to contamination with the toxigenic species and OTA. Ochratoxin A has also been found in much higher concentrations (max. 53 mug/kg) in dried vine fruit than in wine suggesting that A. carbonarius can dominate the drying vine fruit ecosystem. There is a significant lack of knowledge in Europe on conducive climatic conditions preharvest and their relationship with levels of risk from OTA contamination in grapes and their fate in wine production. This needs to be integrated with cultivation system to maximise the prevention of OTA entering this food chain.     

Intake of ochratoxin A and deoxynivalenol through beer consumption in Belgium

Estimations of ochratoxin A (OTA) and 4-deoxynivalenol (DON) exposure of the Belgian population through beer consumption were made using the results of the recent Belgian food survey and the compiled data set of OTA and DON levels in conventionally and organically produced beers in 2003-05. For the consumers of organic beers, the daily intake of OTA was 0.86 (in 2003), 1.76 (in 2004) and 0.72 (in 2005) ng kg^-1 body weight (bw), considering the mean beer consumption (0.638 litres) and the average level of OTA in 2003, 2004 and 2005, respectively. Using the 97.5th percentile of beer consumption (1.972 litres), the corresponding OTA daily intakes were 2.65, 5.44 and 2.24 ng kg^-1 bw, which are close or above the tolerable daily intake (TDI) of 5 ng kg^-1 bw. For the consumers of conventional beers, the OTA intakes were low: 0.23, 0.23 and 0.11 ng kg^-1 bw day^-1 for the average beer consumption, in 2003, 2004 and 2005 against 0.72, 0.73 and 0.34 ng kg^-1 bw day^-1 when the 97.5th percentile level was considered. As for the DON intake, the estimates were quite low for both conventional and organic beer consumers when the provisional maximum TDI (PMTDI) of 1 µg kg^-1 bw was considered. Average consumption of organic beer led to daily intakes of 0.05 and 0.04 µg DON kg^-1 bw in 2003 and 2004, respectively, whilst for conventional beer, daily intakes were 0.07 and 0.05 µg DON kg^-1 bw. At the 97.5th percentile level of beer consumption, daily intakes of 0.15 and 0.13 µg kg^-1 bw were obtained for organic beers against 0.23 and 0.17 µg kg^-1 bw for conventional ones. The results showed that beer could be an important contributor to OTA exposure in Belgium, even though a declining trend seems to be apparent during the last year of monitoring. Therefore, efforts should be devoted to maintain the OTA levels as low as reasonably achievable, especially for organic beer.     

一种测定酿酒葡萄中赭曲霉毒素A的新方法

建立了一种新的测定酿酒葡萄中赭曲霉毒素A含量的方法——"葡萄皮-SPE-HPLC"法:将酿酒葡萄剥皮后用0.1 mol/L磷酸-二氯甲烷(1∶10)提取;取10 mL提取液进样固相萃取小柱,0.1 mol/L磷酸、双蒸水淋洗,乙酸乙酯洗脱后吹干,流动相溶解;高效液相色谱法测定条件为C18反相柱分离,乙腈-水-乙酸(体积比99∶99∶2)为流动相,荧光检测器(激发波长330 nm,发射波长460 nm)检测。该方法回收率为102%¹09%,变异系数为0.1%109%,变异系数为0.1%².0%;用此方法检测贺兰山东麓"玉泉营"和"万义山庄"两个产地酿酒葡萄中OTA含量,结果介于52.0%;用此方法检测贺兰山东麓"玉泉营"和"万义山庄"两个产地酿酒葡萄中OTA含量,结果介于5¹0μg/kg,均有一定程度赭曲霉毒素A污染。     

新疆葡萄酒中赭曲霉毒素A含量分析

赭曲霉毒素A（OTA）是葡萄及其深加工产品中主要的真菌毒素,同时也被国际癌症研究机构（IARC）定为2B类致癌物。 采用 酶联免疫法（ELISA）商业试剂盒对新疆四大产区葡萄酒中OTA含量进行调研分析,研究不同产区葡萄酒中OTA含量的差异;同时, 对不同葡萄品种酿造葡萄酒过程中发酵葡萄汁和葡萄酒的OTA含量进行测定,分析酿造过程中OTA的变化规律。 结果显示,34份葡 萄酒样品中OTA含量均未超过2 μg/L;其中,焉耆盆地和吐哈盆地葡萄酒中OTA含量较低,平均含量分别为0.19 μg/L、0.20 μg/L;在 白葡萄酒酿造过程中OTA含量呈显著的下降趋势,而红葡萄酒酿造中OTA含量呈先升高后降低的趋势。     

液相色谱-串联质谱法测定葡萄酒中赭曲霉毒素A

以赭曲霉毒素B为内标物,建立了应用固相萃取-液相色谱-串联质谱法(SPE-LC-MS/MS)对葡萄酒中赭曲霉毒素A残留量测定的方法。葡萄酒样品经过调节pH值至7.0和C18固相萃取净化的前处理过程后,采用液相色谱-串联质谱法进行测定(正离子方式,多反应监测模式)。方法定量限(LOQ)为2.0g/L。内标法定量计算,在0~10g/L质量浓度范围内线性相关系数0.998。在葡萄酒中分别进行2.0g/L、4.0g/L和8.0g/L三个添加水平的测试,该检测方法回收率范围97.6%~109.7%,相对标准偏差(RSD)3.0%~4.6%。方法简便、快速、准确,可用于葡萄酒中赭曲霉毒素A的定量测定。     

中国白酒工业路在何方?

<正> 前不久,山东秦池酒厂以3.2亿元人民币一举夺得中央电视台广告标王称号,且投标前四名均为白酒生产厂家。这说明什么问题呢?是白酒企业财大气粗,还是白酒工业的繁荣昌盛?似乎都不尽然。 近年来,由于我国白酒生产盲目发展,宏观调控不力,目前已形成产大于销、供大于求的状态,出现了市场割据、多头竞争的混乱局面。工、农、兵、学、商几乎都在办酒厂;国营、集体、个人都在经营酒类产品;假冒伪劣、偷税漏税     

Removal of ochratoxin A by wine Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains

The aim of this work was to examine two wine strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Syrena LOCK 0201 and Malaga LOCK 0173 strains) and thermally inactivated biomass of bakery yeast (BS strain) for their ability to remove ochratoxin A (OTA) from model YPG, white grape GM, and blackcurrant BM media. The media was initially contaminated by 1 μg/mL OTA. The influence of OTA on yeast growth parameters, kinetic of fermentation, and amount of ethanol, glycerol, and acids were determined. It was found that both yeast strains were able to decrease the toxin amount in YPG, GM, and BM media. Strain Malaga LOCK 0173 was able to remove 82.8 and 10.7 % ochratoxin A from grape and blackcurrant medium, respectively. In case of Syrena LOCK 0201 strain, the OTA reduction was higher: 85.1 % for grape and 65.2 % for blackcurrant media. From 54.1 to 64.4 % of initial ochratoxin A concentration was removed after the contaminated wine treatment by thermally inactivated baker’s yeast strain (BS) cells. The elongation of lag phase in contaminated YPG medium compared on toxin-free medium was noted. In white grape and blackcurrant medium, the differences between the final cell number, fermentation rate, moreover the ethanol, glycerol, and acids production in the medium with OTA and the control were not statistically significant. The results showed that the application of selected strains of yeasts in winemaking involving raw material contaminated with OTA might reduce the toxin contamination as well as the health risk related to human exposure to this toxin. Moreover, the application of heat-inactivated yeast’s biomass for toxin adsorption gives new possibilities in oenology.     

Potential ochratoxin A producers from wine grapes in Argentina and Brazil

The aim was to identify the normal mycoflora in wine grapes from Argentina and Brazil. We collected 50 grapes samples from Malbec and Chardonnay varieties in each country during the 1997-98 harvest. Yeasts were a major component of the fungal population, and the most frequent genera of filamentous fungi isolated were: Aspergillus, Penicillium and Botrytis. Other genera identified (in decreasing order) were: Phythophthora, Moniliella, Alternaria and Cladosporium. From grapes, the mean frequency of filamentous fungi ranged from 1.3 × 10⁴ to 5.4 × 10⁶ CFUg^-1. We isolated 48 Aspergillus niger strains from Argentinian grape, of which eight could produce ochratoxin A. Sixteen of 53 A. niger strains from Brazilian grapes produced ochratoxin A. The results indicate that similar mycobiota were isolated from Argentinian and Brazilian wine grapes and there could be ochratoxin A production in this substrate.     

Detection of ochratoxin A in tropical wine and grape juice from Brazil

BACKGROUND: Ochratoxin A (OTA) is the main mycotoxin found in grapes, wines and grape juices and is considered one of the most harmful contaminants to human health. In this study, samples of tropical wines and grape juices from different grape varieties grown in Brazil were analysed for their OTA content by high‐performance liquid chromatography. RESULTS: The detection and quantification limits for OTA were 0.01 and 0.03 µg L^?1 respectively. OTA was detected in 13 (38.24%) of the samples analysed, with concentrations ranging from < 0.03 to 0.62 µg L^?1. OTA was not detected in any of the grape juice samples. Most of the red wine samples proved to be contaminated with OTA (75%), while only one white wine sample was contaminated. However, the OTA levels detected in all samples were well below the maximum tolerable limit (2 µg L^?1) in wine and grape juice established by the European Community and Brazilian legislature. CONCLUSION: The results of this study indicate a low risk of exposure to OTA by consumption of tropical wines and grape juices from Brazil. © 2012 Society of Chemical Industry     

Mycobiota and ochratoxin A producing fungi from Spanish wine grapes

Grapes from three different regions with a long winemaking tradition in Spain were analysed at different growth stages in order to identify the ochratoxigenic mycobiota during three consecutive seasons. The correlation between meteorological parameters and ochratoxigenic fungi was studied and revealed a significant positive correlation between black aspergilli infection and temperatures in the month preceding each sampling date. No significant correlation was found with either relative humidity or rainfall. Biodiversity indexes were also calculated in this study. Black aspergilli species were the most abundant in grapes before harvest, and among them, Aspergillus carbonarius was the main ochratoxin A (OTA) producer species and represented 78-100% of the isolates tested. The results obtained support the key role of A. carbonarius as the main source of OTA contamination in grapes.     

Sensitive detection of ochratoxin A in wine and cereals using fluorescence-based immunosensing

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a mycotoxin found in a wide range of food and feedstuffs. Intake of OTA-contaminated food causes health concern due to the harmful effects reported on humans and animals. Much effort is currently devoted to set up and optimise highly sensitive and accurate methods of OTA analysis. This work describes the comparison of fluorescence-based immunosensing strategies for the analysis of OTA. First, an indirect competitive fluoroimmunoassay was designed and optimised. The assay enabled the quantification of the toxin at the levels set by the European legislation. Then, a flow-immunoassay based on kinetic exclusion measurements was developed. It showed the theoretical lowest limit of detection enabled by the affinity of the anti-OTA antibody (IC(80)=12ngL(-1) in the assay solution). Wine and cereal samples were analysed using the optimised flow system. No significant matrix effects were observed after simple pre-treatment of wine and OTA extraction from corn-flakes samples. This simple and highly sensitive automated biosensing-system allows OTA quantification in food and beverages. It is envisaged as a powerful tool for rapid and reliable toxin screening.     

Exposure assessment to ochratoxin A in Catalonia (Spain) based on the consumption of cereals, nuts, coffee, wine, and beer

Ochratoxin A (OTA) was analysed in composite samples of cereal-based baby foods, beer, breakfast cereals (corn- and rice and wheat-based), loaf bread, peanuts and pistachios. Foodstuffs were collected in hypermarkets and supermarkets from 12 cities in the Spanish region of Catalonia, and composite samples were prepared for analysis involving liquid-liquid extraction, followed by immunoaffinity column clean-up and HPLC with fluorescence detection. Consumption data for the selected foodstuffs were collected by means of a food-frequency questionnaire. The studied population was grouped by age in infants, children, adolescents and adults; and exposure to OTA through the specified foodstuffs, and through wine and coffee, was assessed. Exposure assessment was done through deterministic and probabilistic modelling of the contamination and consumption data. OTA occurrence and mean of positive samples (ng g(-1) or ng ml(-1), for beer) were the following: 8.7% and 0.233 in baby foods; 88.7% and 0.022 in beer; 2.8% and 0.728 in corn-based breakfast cereals; 25% and 0.293 in wheat-based breakfast cereals; 12.9% and 0.283 in loaf bread; 41.7% and 0.241 in peanuts; and 2.9% and 0.228 in pistachios. The median estimated daily intake of OTA through the foodstuffs by each age group were below the latest provisional tolerable daily intakes (PTDIs) of 17 and 14 ng kg(-1)?bw day(-1) recommended by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) in 2006 and the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) in 2007, respectively, ranging from 1% and 2% of those values in adolescents and children, to 3% and 11% in adults and infants.     

Comparison between capillary electrophoresis and HPLC-FL for ochratoxin A quantification in wine

A capillary electrophoresis method with DAD detection has been developed and validated for ochratoxin A (OTA) determination in wine and compared with a previously validated HPLC-FL method. Although the use of UV detection has originated a high value for the quantification limit and, therefore, this method can not be used yet in the determination of OTA in wine in real samples, the analytical performance of the CE-DAD method is fully satisfactory. The more important advantage of CE is the use of the economical and ecological aqueous borate buffer in the separation process. A good correlation of the results has been obtained when 27 fortified wine samples were analyzed by CE-DAD and HPLC-FL. This work demonstrates that the CE technique is a valuable alternative to HPLC-FL analysis of OTA in wine if fluorescence detection is available.     

Occurrence of ochratoxin A producing fungi in wine and table grapes in Israel

A 3-year survey was conducted to assay the number of Aspergillus Section Nigri isolates and in vitro ochratoxin A (OTA) production capacity in 10 vineyards in Israel. The survey included field sampling of two wine cultivars, 'Sauvignon Blanc' and 'Cabernet Sauvignon' as well as the table grape cultivar 'Superior'. A total of 2114 isolates were analyzed and of those 161 isolates were shown to produce OTA. The major finding was that Aspergillus carbonarius (336 tested strains) is the most consistent producer of OTA, with approximately 35% of the isolates identified as positive in vitro. In comparison, 3.1% of other isolates from the Aspergillus niger aggregate (of 1432 strains) produced OTA in vitro. In contrast, none of the 346 tested strains with a uniseriate head morphology produced OTA. The incidence of infected berries was very low before veraison, while at harvest, this frequency was twice as high. In general, the composition of black Aspergilli did not differ during berry development. Generally, more OTA-producing isolates were isolated from the surface of table grapes cv. 'Superior' compared to 'Sauvignon Blanc'. None of the samples collected at harvest contained traces of OTA in the juice. This study shows that grapes in Israel are contaminated with ochratoxigenic species which represent a risk of OTA contamination.     

葡萄酒中赭曲霉毒素A污染情况及其分析方法的研究进展

葡萄酒作为一种酒精饮料,对众多国家的经济贡献是显著的。然而,该商品容易被某些真菌产生的霉菌毒素所污染,其中最受关注的是产赭曲霉毒素A(ochratoxin A, OTA)的炭黑曲霉。赭曲霉毒素A是葡萄酒中主要存在的霉菌毒素,严重影响着人类的健康。因此,葡萄酒的风险监测和暴露研究至关重要。本研究重点阐述了OTA的生物合成途径及其调控机制,同时,介绍了酿酒过程中OTA的变化情况以及控制和检测OTA的方法,旨在为保证葡萄酒产品的质量安全提供一些理论参考。