Effect of proteins on the formation of starch–lipid complexes during extrusion cooking of wheat flour with the addition of oleic acid

The formation of starch–lipid complexes plays an important role in extruded products. The effect of gluten proteins on thermal conditions at which the starch–lipid complexes formed during extrusion cooking of wheat flour with the addition of oleic acid was evaluated, considering wheat starch as a reference. The presence of gluten proteins in wheat flour extrudates brought about a reduction of the formation of starch–lipid complexes compared to blend of wheat starch and oleic acid extruded at the same operating conditions (melting enthalpy: 0.4 vs. 1.6 kJ kg^?1). Moreover, the lubricant effect of oleic acid observed during extrusion of wheat starch (low values of specific mechanical energy and residence time) was not found during extrusion of wheat flour with addition of oleic acid because of the interaction between gluten proteins and oleic acid. This research points out the importance of proteins on biopolymer modifications and their effect on extrudate quality.     

Starch–lipid and starch–lipid–protein complexes: A comprehensive review

Physical interactions often occur between major food components during food processing. These interactions may involve starch, lipids, and proteins forming V‐type starch–lipid complexes or ternary starch–lipid–protein complexes of larger molecular size and greater structural order. Complexes between starch and lipids have been the subject of intensive research for over half a century, whereas the study of starch–lipid–protein complexes is a relatively new field with only a limited amount of knowledge being gained so far. The formation of these complexes can significantly affect the functional and nutritional properties of finished food products in terms of flavor, texture, shelf life, and digestibility. This article provides a comprehensive review of starch–lipid and starch–lipid–protein complexes, including their classification, factors affecting their formation and structure, and preparative and analytical methods. The review also considers how complexes affect the physicochemical and functional properties of starch, including digestibility, and potential applications in the food industry.     

Study of starch-lipid complexes in model system and real food produced using extrusion-cooking technology

The formation of starch-lipid complexes during extrusion of model system (rice starch added with oleic acid) and real food (rice starch added with pistachio nut flour) was evaluated. Both formulas were extruded at the same processing conditions (temperature profiles, screw speed and water feed content).The formation of starch-lipid complexes in real food, is strongly dependent on water feed content. In fact, at barrel temperature of 128 °C, the highest melting enthalpy of real food (6.7 J/g) was obtained only at 21% of water feed content whereas in the model system it was obtained both at 16 and 21%.These results point out the importance to consider all components present in the extruded food in order to study biopolymers modifications that occur during processing.

Industrial relevance

Additions of lipids alter the physical and chemical properties of starchy foods. The changes brought about by them in starchy foods have been attributed to the formation of complexes between amylose and lipids. These changes in the functionality of starch are of interest to the food industry and for human nutrition. Lipid complexation with starch is a very important reaction in extrusion cooking that affects structure formation and texture of the extruded products. Most studies on the starch-lipid complex formation during extrusion of model systems like starch and free fatty acids have been carried out, instead very little is known about starch-lipid complex formation during extrusion of flour blends containing fatty meal. This paper points out the importance to consider all components present in the food extruded in order to study biopolymers modifications that occur during processing. For this reason it is very important to use model systems that are not very different to real food and anyhow it would be advisable to verify the obtained results on real food, above all when a relation between macromolecular modifications and quality characteristics of extruded products would be studied.     

Effect of the addition of whole‐grain wheat flour and of extrusion process parameters on dietary fibre content,starch transformation and mechanical properties of a ready‐to‐eat breakfast cereal

This study evaluates the effect of the incorporation of whole‐grain wheat flour (WGWF) and of extrusion process parameters on the nutritional and technological quality of breakfast cereals. The corn flour‐based breakfast cereals were elaborated in a twin‐screw extruder following a rotatable central composite design with varied WGWF (0–100%), feed moisture (14–24%) and zones 3 and 4 barrel temperature (76–143 °C). Dietary fibre and resistant starch were significantly increased with WGWF addition. Total and digestible starch showed a decrease when WGWF increased. The RVA parameters were significantly affected by all the extrusion conditions and WGWF content. The cell structure of the extrudates was dependent of WGWF and moisture.     

Wet separation of wheat flours into starch and gluten fractions: the combined effects of water to flour ratio–dough maturation time and the effects of flour aging and ascorbic acid addition

The process of making a dough, allowing time for maturation, dispersing the dough in water and wet sieving/washing to obtain a protein fraction and starch milk was studied using response surface methodology by changing the water to flour ratio in dough making (400–710 g kg^?1), maturation time (45–660 s) and the type of flour. Two grades of bread wheat flour and durum clear flour were studied. The effects of aging at ambient temperature for up to 29 days and the addition of ascorbic acid at 100 or 500 mg kg^?1 flour on separation behaviour were also studied for freshly milled high‐grade (65% extraction) bread wheat flours at constant maturation time, 600 s, and at optimum farinograph water absorption value. The quantities and dry matter contents of the protein fraction and starch milk were measured; a sample of starch milk was centrifuged to obtain decantate, tailings and prime starch fractions, and the dry matter contents of each were determined. All the dried samples were also analysed for protein content. The fractional recoveries of dry matter and protein in the protein fraction, prime starch, tailings and decantate were calculated for each experiment. The acid values of flour oils were also determined on some aged flour samples. The results indicated superior separation characteristics in high‐grade wheat flour compared with lower‐grade flours. The water to flour ratio was more influential than maturation time within the range studied. Contrary to the initial expectation, no statistically significant effect of flour aging was observed in the studies with no additive, and ascorbic acid addition was not found to improve the wet separation behaviour, the separation behaviour becoming even worse at the 100 mg kg^?1 level. Acid value showed a slight increase with time. © 2002 Society of Chemical Industry     

Effect of extrusion conditions on resistant starch formation from pastry wheat flour

Pastry wheat flour was extruded under various conditions of feed moisture (20%, 40%, and 60%) and screw speed (150, 200, and 250 rpm), at constant barrel temperature profile (40, 60, 80, 100, and 120 °C, feed port to exit die). The extruded samples were stored at 4 °C for 0, 7, or 14 days, at which times resistant starch (RS) formation was analyzed. Thermal and pasting properties of extruded samples stored for 14 days were analyzed using a differential scanning calorimeter and rapid visco analyzer (RVA), respectively. The RS content increased after extrusion compared to non-extruded pastry wheat flour. High significant positive correlations of feed moisture (P < 0.01) and storage period (P < 0.05) with RS formation were observed. The RS derived from extrusion and storage showed higher thermal stability with decreasing feed moisture and screw speed. Statistically significant differences in pasting properties were observed with feed moisture or screw speed. In particular, the setback value from RVA of the sample was significantly increased with increasing feed moisture. These results indicate that feed moisture and storage time were both important factors for the formation of RS from pastry wheat flour during extrusion.     

Determination of formulation and processing factors affecting slowly digestible starch,protein digestibility and antioxidant capacity of extruded sorghum–maize composite flour

High‐temperature high‐pressure extrusion of sorghum–maize composite flour, of potential for healthy food manufacture, was investigated by factorial experimental design to determine the effect of level of sorghum in dry mix (15–60%); final barrel zone temperature (120–150 °C); total moisture in barrel (21.4–25.8%); total input rate (2.3–6.8 kg h^?1); and screw speed (250–450 rpm) on extrudate slowly digestible starch (SDS), phenolic content, antioxidant capacity, protein digestibility, density and expansion ratio. Extrudate SDS increased with increasing sorghum level and decreased as the barrel temperature increased. Total phenolic content and antioxidant capacity were positively associated with sorghum level. Protein digestibility was associated negatively with sorghum level and positively with barrel temperature. Extrudate density was associated positively with total moisture and negatively with barrel temperature and input rate. Sorghum in dry mix, final barrel zone temperature and total moisture in barrel were the three most significant independent variables influencing extrudate dependant variables.     

Starch–lipid complex formation during extrusion-cooking of model system (rice starch and oleic acid) and real food (rice starch and pistachio nut flour)

The formation of starch–lipid complexes during extrusion-cooking of model system (rice starch and oleic acid) and real food (rice starch and pistachio nut flour) was evaluated. Both formulas were extruded at the same processing conditions (temperature profiles, screw speed, and water feed content). The obtained data showed that in model system and real food, the formation of starch–lipid complexes occurred under different processing conditions. In particular, the highest formation of starch–lipid complexes, that is, the highest melting enthalpy value (ΔH _m = 1.18 J/g), was obtained at the middle values of barrel temperature (100 °C) and water feed content (19%) in the model system. Yet, the only processing variable that had a significant effect on the formation of starch–lipid complexes in the real food was barrel temperature. In particular, the highest melting enthalpy of starch–lipid complexes (ΔH _m = 9.28 J/g) was obtained at the highest values of barrel temperature (130 °C). These results point out the importance of considering all components present in the raw materials submitted to extrusion-cooking in order to study biopolymer modifications, which occur during processing.     

Physicochemical,antioxidant properties and in vitro digestibility of wheat–purple rice flour mixtures

The physicochemical characteristics, antioxidant properties and in vitro digestibility of high‐antioxidant content flours made from different combinations of Thai purple rice flour and refined wheat flour from 25%, 50% to 75% (w/w) were investigated and these were compared with whole flour from purple rice and refined wheat flour. The increase in substitution levels of purple rice flour affected all the functional properties of flours, at the same time the levels of dietary fibre, protein digestibility and antioxidant compositions were also changed. The purple rice flour exerted a particularly strong effect on starch digestibility as the purple rice increased to 50% in the mixture. Moreover, purple rice flour showed lower amounts of rapidly digested starch (RDS), whereas slowly digested starch (SDS) of whole flour from purple rice and 75% substitution purple rice flour was found to be the highest for all samples. The in vitro starch digestibility of all samples also showed a positive correlation between dietary fibre and antioxidant compounds. Overall, the addition of purple rice flour improved the final nutritional properties, notably a lower predicted glycaemic index, and a higher antioxidant potential, which are two important nutritional properties for human health.     

Effects of Fatty Acid Addition on the Physicochemical Properties of Corn Starch

The effect of addition of six fatty acids (stearic, palmitic, myristic, oleic, palmitoleic, and myristoleic acid) on the gelatinization, glass transition, and retrogradation properties of corn starch as well as their complexing abilities with amylose were determined. Differential scanning calorimeter studies reflected that addition of fatty acids caused a 73–89% decrease in the gelatinization enthalpy compared to that of the native starch. Besides amylose-lipid formation, exotherm was determined at the same temperature range with the gelatinization endotherm. As a result, it was suggested that fatty acids complexed with amylose during gelatinization. Fatty acid addition significantly increased the glass transition temperature of starch gel. This was attributed to two reasons: the first is due to the physical cross-linking action of amylose–lipid complexes in starch-water system; the second may be due to the effect of uncomplexed fatty acids on water distribution in the gel structure as a result of their amphiphilic character. Thermal properties of amylose-lipid complexes were compared in order to determine the effect of fatty acid properties. It was found that the shorter chain length and unsaturation favored the complex formation but the complexes formed by longer and saturated fatty acids were more heat stable. Addition of fatty acids resulted in 73–90% and 47–71% reduction in the retrogradation enthalpy compared to native starch gels at 5°C and 21°C, respectively. The reduction in the retrogradation enthalpy was inversely related to the amylose-lipid complexing abilities of the fatty acids and it might be explained by the hindrance effect of uncomplexed fatty acids to the water distribution in the starch gel matrix.     

Twin-screw extrusion cooking of starches: Flow behaviour of starch pastes,expansion and mechanical properties of extrudates

Several starches, corn and durum wheat semolina, and wheat flour were extruded with a twin-screw, pilot-scale machine (Creusot-Loire BC 45). After grinding, pastes of the extruded samples were made and flow curves were obtained at 60°C with a coaxial-cylinder viscometer: a power law can be used to describe them from about 20 to 2600 s^?1. Apparent Young's moduli and rupture strengths of extrudates were evaluated with an Instron, and their diametral and longitudinal expansion measured. The following variables were studied: corn semolina water content, barrel temperature and the corn starch amylose/amylopectin ratio. When water content and barrel temperature vary within certain limits, the values of the constants in the power law equation describe a characteristic line which depends on the amylose and lipid contents of the starch. The formation of an amylose-lipid complex during extrusion is suggested as a key factor in the flow properties of pastes and probably also in the rupture strength of extrudates. There is generally a negative correlation between longitudinal and diametral expansion. It is considered that volume expansion phenomena are mainly dependent on viscous and elastic properties of melted starch.     

α-Amylase reactive extrusion enhances the protein digestibility of saponin-free quinoa flour while preserving its total phenolic content

The original cellular structure and the presence of starch are known to reduce quinoa protein digestibility. Here, we aimed at optimizing an integrated single-step process exploiting the synergisms of amylolysis (<0.42% thermostable α-amylase, starch basis) and extrusion (at different temperature profiles) to enhance protein digestibility in saponin-free quinoa flour while minimizing polyphenol losses. In vitro protein digestion rate (velocity of substrate depletion) and extension (percentage of digested substrate at the end of the reaction) were significantly enhanced with every extrusion treatment, reaching up to four-fold faster protein digestion rate and up to 47% reduction of residual non-digested protein at 100 °C (last barrel temperature) and 0.36 g/100 g α-amylase concentration compared to native flour. Generally, reactive extrusion lowered the content of extractable (free) polyphenols and non-extractable proanthocyanins, but this effect was minimized at lower extrusion temperatures and higher α-amylase concentration. Contrarily, the more thermoresistant hydrolysable bound polyphenols increased in all cases, especially at harsh extrusion conditions.     

Effects of ball‐milling on the glass transition of wheat flour constituents

BACKGROUND: Starch and gluten, the major components of wheat flour, greatly influence the structural characteristics of food products made with wheat flour. The effects of ball‐milling on the change in the semicrystalline structure of starch granules to the amorphous state have been reported. However, the effects of ball‐milling of native wheat flour on physicochemical changes in wheat flour constituents have not been elucidated. Therefore in this study the effects of ball‐milling on the glass transition of wheat flour constituents were investigated. RESULTS: Crude gluten, non‐gluten proteins and separated starch were obtained from wheat flour ball‐milled for 0–10 h, and the glass transition temperature (T_g) of these constituents was evaluated. The T_g of all wheat flour constituents decreased with increasing ball‐milling time. Sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis revealed that changes in band position and intensity did not occur for gluten but did occur for non‐gluten proteins. X‐ray diffraction revealed decreased crystallinity and greater plasticisation by water in separated starch as the ball‐milling time was prolonged. CONCLUSION: The results showed that the ball‐milling process decreased the T_g of wheat flour constituents as a function of milling time. The decrease in T_g was probably due to changes in conformation of protein subunits in gluten and depolymerisation of the non‐gluten protein fraction. The information obtained here about the physical alteration of wheat flour constituents may enhance the ability to successfully use ball‐milled wheat flour in food applications. Copyright © 2008 Society of Chemical Industry     

Effect of soy flour addition and heat-processing method on nutritional quality and consumer acceptability of cassava complementary porridges

BACKGROUND: The nutritional quality of cassava complementary porridge was improved through extrusion cooking and compositing with either defatted or full fat soy flour (65:35 w/w), and product acceptability by mothers with children of the target population was evaluated. RESULTS: The protein digestibility‐corrected amino acid score (PDCAAS) of extrusion‐ and conventionally cooked composite porridges was within the recommendations for complementary foods. The kinetics of starch digestibility showed that all porridges had a rapid rate of starch digestibility, but the rate was lower when defatted soy flour was added and lowest when full fat soy flour was added. The formation of amylase‐lipid complexes as shown by X‐ray diffraction and differential scanning calorimetry can be attributed to the lower digestibility of extrusion‐cooked porridge with full fat soy flour. If fed thrice per day, extrusion‐cooked porridge with defatted or full fat soy flour would meet the energy, protein and available lysine requirements of a child aged 6–8 months receiving low or average nutrients from breast milk. All porridges were well received by Mozambican mothers who use cassava as a staple food. The mean scores for sensory liking of all porridges were 3 and above on a five‐point hedonic scale. CONCLUSION: Extrusion‐cooked cassava/soy flour porridges have good potential for use as high‐energy/high‐protein complementary foods and have acceptable sensory properties. Copyright © 2012 Society of Chemical Industry     

The effect of extrusion cooking using different water feed rates on the quality of ready-to-eat snacks made from food by-products

The effect of different levels of feed moisture (12–17%) during extrusion cooking, using a co-rotating twin-screw extruder on selected nutritional and physical properties of extruded products was investigated. Four different formulations were used based on wheat flour and corn starch with the addition of 10% brewer’s spent grain (BSG) and red cabbage (RC) trimming reducing the flour and starch. The samples were: wheat flour + BSG (WBSG), corn starch + BSG (CBSG), wheat flour + red cabbage (WRC) and corn starch + red cabbage (CRC). Process conditions utilised were: constant feed rate of 25 kg/h, screw speed 200 rpm and barrel temperature of 80 and 120 °C. The results indicated that increasing the water feed to 15% increased the level of total dietary fibre (TDF) in all the extrudates while extrusion processing increased the level of TDF in WBSG, CBSG and CRC but decreased in WRC products. Extrusion cooking increased the level of total antioxidant capacity (TAC) and total phenolic compounds (TPC) in WRC and CRC. In addition to water feed level affecting the TDF of the extrudates, also affected were the expansion ratio, bulk density, hardness, WSI, SME and colour. The protein level of the products and hardness of extrudates were related to the different formulations.     

小麦粉加工精度对挂面储藏期间脂质稳定性的影响

研究不同加工精度小麦粉对挂面储藏期间脂质稳定性影响。结果表明,挂面储藏过程中,总脂和结合脂含量总体呈现下降趋势,游离脂含量先下降后升高再下降,脂肪不断消耗;游离脂肪酸值显著（P< 0.05）升高,低加工精度小麦粉制得的挂面脂质水解程度较高且水解速率快,12周后脂肪酸值略有降低;低加工精度的挂面脂肪酶活显著（P< 0.05）下降;低加工精度挂面亚油酸含量在0-12周显著（P< 0.05）上升,随后显著（P< 0.05）降低;GC-MS测定结果表明挂面中挥发性物质乙酸、己酸和壬酸含量明显升高,加工精度越低的小麦粉制得的挂面中酸性物质含量增幅越大,氧化酸败速度越快。综上,低加工精度小麦粉制得的挂面在储藏过程中脂质水解和氧化程度较高,脂质稳定性较低。     

小麦粉品质和制面工艺对面条品质的影响研究

以普通小麦为原料，以非传统细条实心面条为对象，研究了挤压温度，食盐含量及小麦粉品质对细细条实心面成品品质的影响。结果认为，升高加工温度，可以降低挤压阻力：提高食盐含量，增加挤压阻力。提高温度和食盐含量，都能增加面条的蒸吸水率和蒸煮干物质失落率。温度对面条蒸煮蛋白质的损失率影响较大。样品的蛋白质品质和淀粉的糊化特性对品质也有较大的影响。     

Response surface analysis and extrusion process optimisation of maize–mungbean‐based instant weaning food

This study was conducted to produce high‐quality weaning food from easily available and low‐cost raw materials by extrusion technology. Weaning mix was developed using extrudates of maize (Zea mays) and mungbean (Vigna radiata) flour with a twin‐screw extruder. Experiments were designed using three independent variables [feed moisture (12.6 – 19.4%), screw speed (349 – 601 rpm) and barrel temperature (108 – 192 °C)] and five dependent variables (specific mechanical energy, bulk density, water absorption index, water solubility index and degree of gelatinisation) at five levels of central composite rotatable design (CCRD). Optimisation results indicated that feed moisture of 14.33%, screw speed of 524 rpm and barrel temperature of 174 °C would produce maize–mungbean extrudates of preferable functional properties. The optimised weaning mix contained maize–mungbean extrudates 40%, skim milk powder 35% and sugar 25% (w/w). The nutrient content of the weaning mix was in accordance with the standards specified by PFA, (2004) with high protein and starch digestibility.     

The advantage of using extrusion processing for increasing dietary fibre level in gluten-free products

Gluten-free products generally are not enriched/fortified and frequently are made from refined flour and/or starch. Such products have been found to provide lower amounts of total dietary fibre than their enriched/fortified gluten-containing counterparts.The objective of this study was to increase the level of total dietary fibre in gluten-free products by using extrusion technology and by incorporating a number of different fruits and vegetables, such as apple, beetroot, carrot, cranberry and gluten-free Teff flour cereal. The materials were added at the level of 30% into the gluten-free balanced formulation (control) made from rice flour, potato starch, corn starch, milk powder and soya flour. Different process conditions, such as water feed rate 12%, solid feed rate 15–25 kg/h, screw speed 200–350 rpm, barrel temperatures: 80 °C at feed entry and 80–150 °C at die exit were used. Pressure, material temperature and torque were monitored during extrusion runs. The relationships and interactions between raw ingredients, extrusion processing parameters and resulting extrudate nutritional and textural properties were investigated.The results of this study clearly show that extrusion technology has the potential to increase the levels of total dietary fibre in gluten-free products made from vegetables, fruits and gluten-free cereals.     

麸皮稳定化处理方式对全麦粉品质的影响

研究了微波、常压蒸汽和挤压三种麸皮稳定化处理方式对全麦粉理化性质、加工品质、贮藏稳定性及抗氧化活性的影响。结果表明:挤压处理降低了全麦粉湿面筋含量;挤压和蒸汽处理显著提高了全麦粉的降落数值（P<0.05）,微波处理对降落数值没有显著性差异。蒸汽处理后,全麦面团的稳定时间和粉质质量指数显著提升（P<0.05）,全麦粉的弱化度显著降低（P<0.05）,微波、蒸汽和挤压组的脂肪酶及脂肪氧化酶的活力显著降低（P<0.05）;在全麦粉贮藏期间,挤压和蒸汽组的脂肪酸值较低（<120 mg/100 g）,且上升缓慢,改善了全麦粉稳定性,而微波组的脂肪酸值上升较快,且脂肪酸值较高（>120 mg/100 g）。挤压和蒸汽组的多酚和黄酮含量及多酚对ABTS+·清除能力和氧自由基吸收能力均显著低于微波组（P<0.05）。根据全麦粉的贮藏稳定性和全麦面团的品质,麸皮常压蒸汽稳定化处理适合于全麦粉加工。